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ant 151 > long answers :( > Flashcards

long answers :( Flashcards

1
Q

early mammalian evolution

A
  • early primates emerged after extinction of Dinos (65 million years ago)
  • warming trend 55 million years ago led to extinction for many early mammals and first true primates
  • primates became extinct in North American at end of Eocene era
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2
Q

arboreal and visual predation theories

A
  • arboreal hypothesis: life in trees was responsible for increased visual acuity and manual dexterity
  • visual predation: hunting behavior in tree dwellers was responsible for enhanced visual acuity and manual dexterity
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3
Q

primates in paleocene, eocene, and oligocene

A
  • early primates emerged in paleocene epoch: 65 million years ago
  • first real primates existed at the start of Eocene epoch
  • end of Eocene = ice cap
  • anthropoid primates expanded their range and diversified during oligocene epoch (23-34 million years ago)
  • oligocene primates had ape-like mixed with monkey features
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4
Q

miocene apes and human origins

A
  • true apes began to appear in miocene epoch (5-23 million years ago)
  • OW primates could extend their range due to collision of African and eurasian land masses
  • “golden age of hominoids”
  • one miocene ape is direct ancestor of human but they don’t know which one
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5
Q

bipedalism

A
  • isolated skull is one indicator of bipedalism
  • pelvis shape and size differs greatly in bipeds
  • not many advantages at first
  • spinal cord makes complex curves through foramen magnum
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6
Q

pros and cons of bipedalism

A
  • pros: better endurance running, stand taller see further, free hands for tools/children
  • cons: slower running, exposed stomach area, increased visibility to predators
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7
Q

pliocene environment

A
  • african and European collision of land masses continued which led to great valley rift system
  • rifting created increase of elevation of east Africa which experienced a cooler, more dry climate and transformation of vegetation (forest to Savanah)
  • rifting also contributed to volcanic activity
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8
Q

ardipithecus

A
  • genus of extinct hominine that lived during late miocene and early pliocene
  • earliest genus of Hominidae
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9
Q

Australopithecus

A
  • genus including several species of early bipeds from south/East Africa
  • 1.1-4.3 million years ago
  • ethnocentric bias made it hard for others to accept this was an ancestor to humans
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10
Q

the first stone toolmaker

A
  • percussion method : striking raw material and flaking off pieces
  • oldawan tool tradition: early stone tool industry beginning 2.5-2.6 million years ago
  • appearance of early stone tools marks start of lower paleolithic (first part of old Stone Age)
  • lomekwian tool tradition: oldest stone tools dated 3.3 million years ago
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11
Q

sex, gender, behavior of Homo

A
  • lots of bias that women tend children and are under appreciated where men are looked at as hunters and providers
  • gender defines differences between sexes
  • lots of female primates hunt and use spears
  • culture plays a role in establishing primate behaviours
  • elimination of biases proves members of genus homo weren’t big hunters but tertiary scavengers (3rd in line to get something)
  • brain expansion began 2.8 million years ago
  • brain expansion lead to dietary changes because of energy needed for brain
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12
Q

homo erectus

A
  • biped, large brain, human like femur
  • best identified through skull features
  • cranium has low vault, and head is long/narrow
  • possessed massive brow ridge, sloping forehead, receding chin, protruding mouth, huge shoulder muscles
  • similar look to humans but biggest more robust muscles
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13
Q

relationship between homo Habilis, homo Erectus, &others

A
  • small teeth/large brain of homo Erectus mark continuation of trend belonging to homo habilis
  • presumably homo Erectus evolved from homo habilis
  • asian homo Erectus had bigger bones ,more pronounced brow ridges than African homo Erectus
  • australopithecus sediba could be direct ancestor
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14
Q

homo erectus culture

A
  • larger brain= larger cultural capacity
  • redefined stone toolmaking and technology
  • started using fire for light, protection and cooking
  • Acheulean tool tradition: hand axe
  • first to use fire
  • hunting- they developed organized hunts of large of large animals, requires organization and communication skills; complex thought
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15
Q

question of language

A
  • no evidence of linguistic capabilities but developing symbolic life, planning for seasonal changes, organization of hunting imply linguistic capabilities
  • right hand was used more for making stone tools and hand axe which goes hand in hand with the development of language
  • there is evidence that homo Erectus was capable of language; hypoglossal controls to tongue movement
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16
Q

archaic Homo sapiens and modern sized brains

A

-brain reached modern proportions 200,000-400,000 years ago
-loosely defined group within genus homo that is associated with large brains, ancestral features on the skul
-cultural change accelerated with large brains
-invented levalloisian technique; 3 or 4 large flakes detached from specific core
-also invented hafting; attached wood handles, lead to knifes and complex spears
-

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17
Q

Neanderthals

A

fossil group within genus homo inhabiting Europe and southwest Asia 30,000-125,000 years ago

  • extremely muscular
  • didn’t look similar to western beauty so they got a bad name
  • their intelligence is no different than modern humans
  • large noses, strong muscles ,large brow ridge
  • very strong grip, high endurance levels and strength
  • hunted large game animals successfully
  • practiced ritual burials and cared for ill members
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18
Q

Javanese, African, and Chinese archaic Homo sapiens

A
  • h.sapiens in these regions lacked Neanderthals characteristics
  • demisovan- found in Siberia, new group of h.sapiens dated between 30,000-50,000 years ago, local descendants of h. Erectus
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19
Q

middle paleolithic culture

A
  • there were both biological and cultural changes in the middle palelithic but cultural were superior to other members of genus homo
  • bigger brain led to more innovation and spoken language
  • mousterian tool tradition; tool industry of Neanderthals from 40,000-125,000 years ago. way more effective than other tool traditions.
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20
Q

culture, skulls, and modern human origins

A
  • increased cranial capacity led to complex thought and sophisticated technology
  • upper paleolithic known for artistic expression
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21
Q

human origins debate

A
  • multiregional hypothesis; simultaneous local transition from h. Erectus into h. sapiens in parts of world populated by genus homo
  • african origins; all contemporary peoples derive from one single population of archaic Homo sapiens from Africa, this culturally advanced population replaced all other forms. this hypothesis has lacked evidence until recent discoveries
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22
Q

reconciling the evidence

A

-african origins is more believed than multiregional in western countries
-chinese believe multiregional due to certain fossil discoveries
-features unique to Neanderthals exist in contemporary humans, especially where they lived
genetic evidence;
-has been cornerstone to African origins hypothesis however, reanalysis of mitochondria dna proved not all mtdna was from Africa
-problems; models assume steady rate of mutation, also rely on selective pressures
anatomical evidence;
-fossil discoveries help provide evidence from where they came from but not how there brain developed and culture increased
-neandertal traits are found more in diverse populations of modern humans
cultural;
-neandertals and modern humans both used mousterian technology
-modern humans created aurignacian tool tradition beginning in upper paleoliothic
-not many behavioral differences between upper paleolithic and middle paleolithic

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23
Q

upper paleoliothic technology

A
  • new technique of core production led to more advanced blades
  • blade technique; method of stone tool manufacture, long parallel flakes are struck off prepared core
  • pressure flaking; stone tool manufacture where small bone, antler, or wooden tool is used to press small flakes off stone
  • burin; stone tool with chisel like edges used for working bone, horn, antler, ivory
  • spear throwing, net hunting, bow& arrow appeared
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24
Q

upper paleolithic art

A
  • venus figurines; figures of women with accenuated body parts, possibly worship of female ability to give birth
  • ochre crayons; red and yellow ochre used to decorate
  • removed bone marrow of animals to create paint
  • music; bone flutes, whistles, use of bow and arrow for string instruments
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25
Q

cave art

A
  • earliest evidence leads back to Australia 45,000 years ago
  • geometric patterns and repetitive motifs
  • many scenes indicate trance and illusions
  • entoptic phenomenon; vision of bright pulsating forms generated by central nervous systems, can be caused by migraines
  • animals chosen for art were not the ones that were hunted but the large beasts
  • humans not portrayed in cave art
  • many suggest cave art was used for ceremonial purposes rather than art, to ensure successful hunt, promote fertility
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26
Q

ornamental art

A
  • use of jewelry , beads

- art made in less resistant materials therefore didn’t last as long but doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist

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27
Q

other aspect of upper paleolithic culture

A
  • lived in structures they built
  • engaged in long distance trade
  • worn similar clothes to others
28
Q

spread of upper paleolithic people

A
  • expanded into regions others hadn’t such as Siberia 280000 years ago
  • archaic homos possessed oceanic travel capabilities
  • American Indians are traced back to asia
  • travelled from Siberia to alaska
  • ancient Siberians travelled east but their access was blocked until 13,000 years ago by glaciers
  • americans may have came from boat or raft
29
Q

major paleolithic trends

A
  • evolution of humans relied on cultural adaptations more than biological
  • evolving humans developed clothing, fire, tools, weapons suited for harsh conditions instead of physically adapting to harsh conditions
  • cultural abilities are not genetic and can be taught
  • cooking development led for more energy for brain development
  • tools became lighter, smaller
30
Q

environment changes from paleolithic to mesolithic

A
  • upper paleolithic had lots of glaciers and led to human expansion
  • glaciers receded 12000 years ago causing flooding
  • in northern regions, forrest replaced tundra
  • migration of animals led to change of diet to plant based
31
Q

mesolithic tool making and shelters

A
  • toolmakers started making ground stone-tools with advanced handles, they took longer to make but broke less often
  • microlith; small blade of flint or similar stone, when used with a handle, led to widespread of this tool in mesolithic
  • fit microliths in woodbine, antler handles which led to more sophisticated weapons
32
Q

main features of natufian culture

A
  • natufians lived from 10,200-12,500 years ago in Mediterranean
  • lived in caves, rock shelters, and houses made of mudded walls
  • burried dead in communal cemeteries
  • pits beneath floors that showed plant based food storage
  • used sickles; small stone blades
33
Q

neolithic revolution

A
  • transition from economy based on hunting ,gathering, fishing to food production
  • food production included horticulture (cultivation of crops in gardens with use of tools) and pastoralism (breeding/managing of herds)
  • primary innovation; invention of something widespread (clay), secondary innovation; altercation of previous invention
34
Q

domestication

A
  • takes place as humans modify genetic makeup of plant /animals to the extent where one can survive without the other
  • plants; domestication allows them to reproduce while humans use for food
35
Q

evidence of early plant domestication

A
  • can tell the difference between fossils of modified plants and wild plants due to changes humans revolving around their interests
  • changes included; increased size, reduction/loss of seed dispersal, loss of protective barriers(husks), development of ripening
36
Q

evidence for animal domestication

A
  • produced changes in skeletal structures of some animals
  • change of animal feature size such as canines
  • evidence of large amount of male goats slaughtered implies males were used for food and females for breeding
37
Q

observations of food production

A
  • food foraging was easier than food production
  • food production require hard work and management of environmentally dependant crops
  • competition for resources increased and land ownership concepts were favoured
38
Q

oasis theory

A
  • glacial cover over Europe and Asia led to different rain patterns
  • north/southwest Africa got drier and people were forced to congregate to oases for water
  • they collected seeds from around oases and used them to feed communities eventually
  • oases attracted animals leading to their domestication because animals were too thin to eat and humans had to fatten them up
39
Q

theory for plant domestication

A
  • earliest plant domestication took place in Fertile Crescent (upper nile-lower tigris)
  • spread to other regions 10,300 years ago
  • some plants (peas, lentils,chickpeas) adapted well to dryness after glaciers
  • seeds for next wet period stored for prolonged times
40
Q

theory for animal domestication

A
  • human management of sheep interfered with natural selection allowing humans to control reproduction of such animas
  • beggiing 11000 years ago, number of sheep consumed decreased by 50% indicating first domestication of sheep
  • some link animal domestication to development of fixed territories
41
Q

domestication in Southeast Asia and americas

A
  • china; rice domesticated 11000 years ago, yams/taros also dominated In this region
  • amercia; domestication of a squash discovered 10,000 years ago in Ecuador
  • americas indigenous peoples are responsible for 60% modern day crops
  • american Indians called best farmers
42
Q

consequences of early food production

A
  • population growth consequence of food production?
  • food production lead to increased fertility
  • domestication led to instability because of fewer food options and failure of such crops was way more severe
  • bacteria spreads easily in close fields
  • irish potato famine
43
Q

Jericho

A
  • 10,350 years ago there was a sizeable farming community in Jordan river valley
  • crops could be grown continuously due to rich soil and waterborne deposits from the west renewed soil fertility
  • to protect settlement from floods, they built massive stone walls around settlement
  • built stone tower inside one corner which took 100+ days
  • population;400-900 people
44
Q

Neolithic material culture

A
  • toolmaking; harvesting tools such as flint blades with handles. sickles, forks, hoes replaces digging sticks, acquired skills for pottery, weavings, leatherwork
  • pottery; used to transfer food/water, and material purposes. could cook food in pottery over fire, use for lamps, ladles, water containers, pipes, even used for body disposal. often decorated.
  • housing; food production led to building houses, shelters made of wood and stone and were more diverse
  • clothing; first to wear woven textiles as clothing, used wool, cotton, silkworms, also used pinwheel
45
Q

social structure(Neolithic)

A
  • although evidence of spiritually ceremonies, villages lacked hierarchy and organization
  • minimal division of labour, fairly equal
  • increased population
46
Q

neolithic culture in americas

A
  • all developments of mesoamerica were discovered separately from all other regions with different materials, animals
  • followed own rich trajectories until Europeans ruined it ;(
47
Q

neolithic and human biology

A
  • food production led to less stress on bodies and teeth
  • less wear on teeth, less robust bones, less osteoarthritis
  • but show severe and chronic nutritional stress
  • dental decay increase from high starch diets
  • minor environmental changes could lead to malnutrition and starvation
  • increased morality rate due to warfare
  • food production promotes Garbage and waste
48
Q

neolithic idea of progress

A

-food production decreased human health but increased culture

49
Q

civilization defined

A
  • large number of people live in cities and are socially stratified and governed by ruling elites called ‘states’
  • neolithic villages grew into cities 4500-6000 years ago
50
Q

first cities

A
  • started in Mesopotamia then egypts nile valley and Indus Valley (India and Pakistan), in china in ancient city Hsia 5000 years ago, american-indian in Peru 4000 years ago and mesoamerican 3000 years ago
51
Q

excavation of takal

A
  • tikal is largest lowland Maya canters in existence
  • Maya settles 3000 years ago
  • tikal flourished until 1100 years ago
  • great plaza in the centre
  • population grew to 45000 people
  • import of some items proved trade of non-perishable items
  • they export chert ;flint like stone
  • found specialized woodworking, pottery, obsidian, shell workshops
  • proof of specialized occupations such as astronomers
52
Q

agricultural innovation of neolithic village life- urban life

A
  • new farming methods
  • extensive systems of dikes, canal reservoirs to irrigate farmlands and manage large herds
  • irrigation improved crops
  • better crops led to more people
53
Q

diversification of labour- neolithic village life- urban life

A
  • ancient public records show specialized jobs for farming

- specialization allowed experts to make new ways of doing things

54
Q

central government - neolithic village life-urban life

A
  • size and complexity of cities requires strong authority
  • government prevented infringing of different interest groups
  • protected cities from enemies by building army
  • created taxes and appointed tax collectors
  • evidence comes from royal chronicles, law codes, temples records, and monuments
55
Q

social stratification

A
  • emergence of social classes
  • based on wealth, occupation, kin group
  • could buy way to higher rank
  • grave goods show social classes
56
Q

2 civilization theories

A
  • hydraulic theory; civilizations emergence as result of construction of elaborate irrigation systems, the functioning of which required strong management which blossomed into government
  • action theory; self-serving actions of forceful leaders lead to civilization, recognizes relationship between society and environment and also that forceful leaders strive to advance their positions through self serving actions
57
Q

negatives effects of civilization

A
  • challenge of waste disposal
  • build up of garbage and sewage led to perfect breading grounds for disease which led to higher death rate
  • common warfare
  • faced similar social problems to today
  • spread disease to new areas
58
Q

race classification schemes

A
  • based on phenotypes such as skin colour, body size, head shape, etc
  • divided into races
  • first: europeans=white, africans=black, American Indians=red, asians = yellow (Linnaeus)
  • Johann Blumenbach presented new model. caucasians, Ethiopian, Mongolians, Malay. ranked caucasians as superior
59
Q

race as biological concept

A
  • biologists define race as a subspecies, or population of species, that differs from other populations of same species genetically, geographically, morphologically
  • three factors complicate use of definitions;
    1. its arbitrary- no scientific criteria exists on how many differences it takes to make a race
    2. no single race has exclusive possession of any particular variant of gene
    3. vast majority of genetic variations exists within a so called racial group
60
Q

problem with concept of race

A
  • race doesn’t exist biologically but it does exist culturally
  • humans insert false notions of biological differences into their cultural argument to make it seem more legit
  • cultures define religious, linguistic, and ethnic groups as races thereby confusing cultural and linguistic traits with physical traits
61
Q

racism

A
  • doctrine of superiority where one group justify the dehumanization of another based on physical characteristics
  • based on stereotypes not facts
  • used by politicians
62
Q

race, behavior and intelligence

A

behavior- all behavioral differences can be explained in terms of culture,high crime rates&alcoholism&drug use can be blamed on culture not biology, all effects of poverty, in justice and unequal opportunities, structural violence= physical and/or psychological harm caused by impersonal, exploitative, and unjust social, political and economic schemes (environmental destruction, poverty, illness, etc)
intelligence- made up of lots of different factors and can be inherited, IQ aren’t accurate because they show performance not natural ability, performance reflects past experiences, social environment contributes substantially to intelligence

63
Q

physical diversity of humans

A
  • use of clines to understand biological variation,
  • ploymorphic=species with alternative alleles,
  • polytypic=describes expression of genetic variants in diff. frequencies in different population
64
Q

how culture effects biological diversity

A
  • culture determines biological fitness
  • to access certain medication you need money and resources
  • culture contributes to development of disease
  • american high sugar low exercise diet leads to higher level of obesity
65
Q

how is skin colour adaptive

A
  • skin colour effected by; thickness of skin, copper colour pigment called carotene, reflected colour from blood vessels, and amount of melanin
  • exposure to sunlight increases melanin and darkens skin
66
Q

why don’t humans have fur?

A

-lost fur in order to thermoregulate our body temperatures and prevent overheating

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