Locke & Latham (2000) (Week 4)

Question 1

What is the argument by McClelland, a nonbehaviourist?

Answer 1

Internal motives e.g. need for achievement exist

But they are subconscious, can only be measured by projective tests

Question 2

Based on McClelland’s argument, why was the possibility of studying conscious regulation of action ruled out?

Answer 2

Introspection was not a valid method of understanding human motivation

Question 3

What is the argument by Ryan (1970)?

Answer 3

Human behaviour is affected by conscious purposes, plans, intentions, tasks, and the like

These first-level explanatory concepts were the immediate motivational causes of most human action

> > Conscious goals affect action

Question 4

What is the definition of a goal?

Answer 4

A goal is the object or aim of an action, for example, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a time limit

Question 5

What was the relationship of goal difficulty to performance proposed by Atkinson (1958)?

Answer 5

Task difficulty, measured as probability of task success, was related to performance in a curvilinear, inverse function

Highest level of effort for moderately difficult tasks,
lowest levels for v. easy or v. hard tasks

Question 6

In contrast to Atkinson’s (1958) findings, what was the relationship of goal difficulty to performance proposed by Locke and Latham?

Answer 6

Task-difficulty findings were not replicated when task performance goals were measured

Positive, linear function – highest/most difficult goals produced highest levels of effort and performance

Performance leveled off/decreased ONLY when limits of ability were reached or when commitment to a highly difficult goal lapsed

Question 7

What is the difference in the effect of specific, difficult goals vs. “do your best”?

Answer 7

Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance

Question 8

Why do specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance compared to “do your best”?

Answer 8

People do not do their best when asked to do so

Because do-your-best goals have no external referent, defined idiosyncratically

Hence allows for wide range of acceptance performance levels vs. a specific goal level

Question 9

Does goal specificity lead to high performance? What is the effect of goal specificity?

Answer 9

Goal specificity in itself does not necessarily lead to high performance bc specific goals VARY IN DIFFICULTY

But goal specificity reduces variation in performance by reducing ambiguity about what is to be attained

Question 10

What is Vroom’s (1964) valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory?

Answer 10

The force to act is a multiplicative combination of

valence (anticipated satisfaction)

instrumentality (belief that perf will lead to rewards)

expectancy (belief that effort will lead to perf needed to attain the rewards)

Question 11

What is the relationship between expectancy and performance?

Answer 11

Expectancy is linearly and positively related to performance, other factors being equal

However bc difficult goals are harder to attain than easy goals – expectancy of goal success = negatively related to performance

Question 12

How is the contradiction of a positive (vs. negative) relationship between expectancy and performance resolved?

Answer 12

By distinguishing expectancy WITHIN vs. expectancy BETWEEN goal conditions

When goal level is held constant (assumed by V-I-E theory), higher expectancies lead to higher perf

ACROSS goal levels, lower expectancies is assoc. with higher goal levels (i.e. more difficult), which is assoc, with higher perf

Question 13

What are the 4 goal mechanisms?

Answer 13

1. Serve directive function
2. Energising function
3. Goals affect persistence
4. Goals affect action indirectly by leading to arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies

Question 14

What is the directive function of goals?

Answer 14

Goals direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities

And away from goal-irrelevant activities

Occurs both cognitively and behaviourally

Question 15

What is the energising function of goals?

Answer 15

High goals lead to greater effort than low goals

Question 16

How do goals affect persistence?

Answer 16

Hard goals prolong effort when time can be self-determined

Tradeoff in work between time and intensity of effort for a difficult goal - work faster, more intensely for a short period; or work more slowly, less intensely for a long period

Question 17

What are the 2 key categories of factors facilitating goal commitment?

Answer 17

a) Importance
- Factors that make goal attainment impt to ppl, including imptance of outcomes

b) Self-efficacy
- Beliefs that they can attain the gaol

Question 18

What are the ways to enhance goal commitment by making a goal more important?

Answer 18

1. Making a public commitment
2. Leaders communicate an inspiring vision and behaving supportively
3. Participate in goal setting and strategies
4. Monetary incentives

Question 19

What are the contingency factors of using monetary incentives to enhance goal commitment?

Answer 19

1. Amount of incentive
   - More money = More commitment
2. Goals and incentive type interact
   - When goal is v difficult, paying people only if they reach the goal can hurt performance
   - Ppl see they are not getting the reward -> personal goal and self-efficacy drop -> perf drops
   - But not if goal is moderately difficult or paid for performance (piece rate) instead of goal attainment

Question 20

How does self-efficacy enhance goal commitment?

Answer 20

1. Ensuring adequate training
2. By role modelling
3. Through persuasive communication: Express confidence that the person can attain the goal

Question 21

What is the use of feedback?

Answer 21

Reveals progress

Adjust level or direction of effort or adjust performance strategies

Question 22

What does the Control Theory propose?

Answer 22

Source of motivation is a negative feedback loop
Eliminates goal-performance discrepancies
Natural state of organism - motionless/rest

Question 23

What are the limitations of Control Theory?

Answer 23

Discrepancy reduction is a CONSEQUENCE rather than cause of goal-directed behaviour

Goal setting is a discrepancy-creating process

Question 24

How does task complexity affect goal-performance relationship?

Answer 24

Effect size for goal setting is smaller on complex than simple tasks

Question 25

What are proximal goals?

Answer 25

Higher self-efficacy and profits when proximal outcome goals were set in addition to distal outcome goal

Question 26

How are proximal goals useful?

Answer 26

• Increase error management – whether picture of reality is aligned with what is required to attain their goal

Question 27

What is the motivation hub?

Answer 27

Where the action is, consists of personal goals, including goal commitment, and self=efficacy

Question 28

How is satisfaction related to goals?

Answer 28

Goals are a standard for judging satisfaction

Goals serve as the inflection point or reference standard for satisfaction vs dissatisfaction

Exceed goal – +ve discrepancy grows, increasing satisf.
Not reaching goal – -ve discrepancy grows, increasing dissatisf

Question 29

Why would people be motivated to set high goals?

Answer 29

Expect many psychological and practical outcomes from setting and attaining those goals

Question 30

What are the practical applications of goal setting?

Answer 30

1. Productivity and cost improvement
   - Setting specific difficult goal – increase in employee productivity, reduced costs
2. Performance appraisal
   - Led to higher and more positive perf appraisal
3. Selection
   - Conduct situational interview to assess applicant’s goal/intentions
   - High criterion-related validity
4. Self-regulation at work
   - Increased self-efficacy, perf
   - Mental practice
   - High-performance cycle

Question 31

What is the high-performance cycle?

Answer 31

High goals lead to high performance, leading to rewards, leading to high satisfaction and self-efficacy for future goal

Question 32

What are some limitations of goal setting?

Answer 32

1. Goal conflict
   - Undermines performance if personal goals are not aligned with org’s goals
2. Learning and performance goals
   - Learning goals enhanced interest in class but did not affect grades
3. Goals and risk
   - Difficult perf goals increased riskiness of goal strategies
4. Personality
   - Goals and self-efficacy mediate effect of personality on perf

Question 33

What are the two issues related to personality and goals?

Answer 33

1. Do goals, along with self-efficacy, mediate personality effects?
2. Are goals better predictors of action than traits?

Question 34

What are the conclusions of goals and subconscious motivation?

Answer 34

1. First level explanation of motivation, i.e. conscious goal setting may be more reliably and directly tied to action than second-level explanations e.g. motives
2. Conscious and subconscious aspects of achievement motivation are unrelated