Locke & Latham (2000) (Week 4) Flashcards
What is the argument by McClelland, a nonbehaviourist?
Internal motives e.g. need for achievement exist
But they are subconscious, can only be measured by projective tests
Based on McClelland’s argument, why was the possibility of studying conscious regulation of action ruled out?
Introspection was not a valid method of understanding human motivation
What is the argument by Ryan (1970)?
Human behaviour is affected by conscious purposes, plans, intentions, tasks, and the like
These first-level explanatory concepts were the immediate motivational causes of most human action
> > Conscious goals affect action
What is the definition of a goal?
A goal is the object or aim of an action, for example, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a time limit
What was the relationship of goal difficulty to performance proposed by Atkinson (1958)?
Task difficulty, measured as probability of task success, was related to performance in a curvilinear, inverse function
Highest level of effort for moderately difficult tasks,
lowest levels for v. easy or v. hard tasks
In contrast to Atkinson’s (1958) findings, what was the relationship of goal difficulty to performance proposed by Locke and Latham?
Task-difficulty findings were not replicated when task performance goals were measured
Positive, linear function – highest/most difficult goals produced highest levels of effort and performance
Performance leveled off/decreased ONLY when limits of ability were reached or when commitment to a highly difficult goal lapsed
What is the difference in the effect of specific, difficult goals vs. “do your best”?
Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance
Why do specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance compared to “do your best”?
People do not do their best when asked to do so
Because do-your-best goals have no external referent, defined idiosyncratically
Hence allows for wide range of acceptance performance levels vs. a specific goal level
Does goal specificity lead to high performance? What is the effect of goal specificity?
Goal specificity in itself does not necessarily lead to high performance bc specific goals VARY IN DIFFICULTY
But goal specificity reduces variation in performance by reducing ambiguity about what is to be attained
What is Vroom’s (1964) valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory?
The force to act is a multiplicative combination of
valence (anticipated satisfaction)
instrumentality (belief that perf will lead to rewards)
expectancy (belief that effort will lead to perf needed to attain the rewards)
What is the relationship between expectancy and performance?
Expectancy is linearly and positively related to performance, other factors being equal
However bc difficult goals are harder to attain than easy goals – expectancy of goal success = negatively related to performance
How is the contradiction of a positive (vs. negative) relationship between expectancy and performance resolved?
By distinguishing expectancy WITHIN vs. expectancy BETWEEN goal conditions
When goal level is held constant (assumed by V-I-E theory), higher expectancies lead to higher perf
ACROSS goal levels, lower expectancies is assoc. with higher goal levels (i.e. more difficult), which is assoc, with higher perf
What are the 4 goal mechanisms?
- Serve directive function
- Energising function
- Goals affect persistence
- Goals affect action indirectly by leading to arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies
What is the directive function of goals?
Goals direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities
And away from goal-irrelevant activities
Occurs both cognitively and behaviourally
What is the energising function of goals?
High goals lead to greater effort than low goals
How do goals affect persistence?
Hard goals prolong effort when time can be self-determined
Tradeoff in work between time and intensity of effort for a difficult goal - work faster, more intensely for a short period; or work more slowly, less intensely for a long period
What are the 2 key categories of factors facilitating goal commitment?
a) Importance
- Factors that make goal attainment impt to ppl, including imptance of outcomes
b) Self-efficacy
- Beliefs that they can attain the gaol
What are the ways to enhance goal commitment by making a goal more important?
- Making a public commitment
- Leaders communicate an inspiring vision and behaving supportively
- Participate in goal setting and strategies
- Monetary incentives
What are the contingency factors of using monetary incentives to enhance goal commitment?
- Amount of incentive
- More money = More commitment - Goals and incentive type interact
- When goal is v difficult, paying people only if they reach the goal can hurt performance
- Ppl see they are not getting the reward -> personal goal and self-efficacy drop -> perf drops
- But not if goal is moderately difficult or paid for performance (piece rate) instead of goal attainment
How does self-efficacy enhance goal commitment?
- Ensuring adequate training
- By role modelling
- Through persuasive communication: Express confidence that the person can attain the goal
What is the use of feedback?
Reveals progress
Adjust level or direction of effort or adjust performance strategies
What does the Control Theory propose?
Source of motivation is a negative feedback loop
Eliminates goal-performance discrepancies
Natural state of organism - motionless/rest
What are the limitations of Control Theory?
Discrepancy reduction is a CONSEQUENCE rather than cause of goal-directed behaviour
Goal setting is a discrepancy-creating process
How does task complexity affect goal-performance relationship?
Effect size for goal setting is smaller on complex than simple tasks
What are proximal goals?
Higher self-efficacy and profits when proximal outcome goals were set in addition to distal outcome goal
How are proximal goals useful?
- Increase error management – whether picture of reality is aligned with what is required to attain their goal
What is the motivation hub?
Where the action is, consists of personal goals, including goal commitment, and self=efficacy
How is satisfaction related to goals?
Goals are a standard for judging satisfaction
Goals serve as the inflection point or reference standard for satisfaction vs dissatisfaction
Exceed goal – +ve discrepancy grows, increasing satisf.
Not reaching goal – -ve discrepancy grows, increasing dissatisf
Why would people be motivated to set high goals?
Expect many psychological and practical outcomes from setting and attaining those goals
What are the practical applications of goal setting?
- Productivity and cost improvement
- Setting specific difficult goal – increase in employee productivity, reduced costs - Performance appraisal
- Led to higher and more positive perf appraisal - Selection
- Conduct situational interview to assess applicant’s goal/intentions
- High criterion-related validity - Self-regulation at work
- Increased self-efficacy, perf
- Mental practice
- High-performance cycle
What is the high-performance cycle?
High goals lead to high performance, leading to rewards, leading to high satisfaction and self-efficacy for future goal
What are some limitations of goal setting?
- Goal conflict
- Undermines performance if personal goals are not aligned with org’s goals - Learning and performance goals
- Learning goals enhanced interest in class but did not affect grades - Goals and risk
- Difficult perf goals increased riskiness of goal strategies - Personality
- Goals and self-efficacy mediate effect of personality on perf
What are the two issues related to personality and goals?
- Do goals, along with self-efficacy, mediate personality effects?
- Are goals better predictors of action than traits?
What are the conclusions of goals and subconscious motivation?
- First level explanation of motivation, i.e. conscious goal setting may be more reliably and directly tied to action than second-level explanations e.g. motives
- Conscious and subconscious aspects of achievement motivation are unrelated
