Liposuction Abdominoplasty Flashcards

Question

``` A 38-year-old woman undergoes suction-assisted lipectomy of the hips, abdomen, and outer thighs. Using a super-wet technique, 3 L of aspirate is obtained. Which of the following is the most accurate estimate of the percentage of fluid infiltrate that remains in the body at the end of the procedure? A) 10% B) 30% C) 50% D) 70% E) 90% ```

Answer 1

D) 70% The most accurate estimate of infiltrate remaining in the body is 70%. Fluid management is critical in the treatment of suction lipectomy patients. Profound hemodynamic changes occur with increasing significance as the volume of infiltrate and aspirate increases. To avoid fluid overload leading to pulmonary edema, the plastic surgeon must realize that the majority of infiltrate will remain in the patient’s body and be absorbed over time. Fluid requirements should include maintenance fluid (the amount of fluid required to replace normal daily requirements plus deficits related to being nothing-by-mouth), aspirate removed, and fluid infiltrated (70% estimated to be intravascular). These calculations will be vastly different depending on the type of wetting solution used.

Answer 2

70% estimated to be intravascular

Answer 3

200-300 mL per site

Answer 4

1 mL infiltrate for 1 mL aspirate

Answer 5

3 mL infiltrate for 1 mL aspirate

Answer 6

B) Medial antebrachial cutaneous

Answer 7

25-40% Most common complications of brachioplasty are considered minor and include seroma, poor scarring, edema, wound dehiscence, and underresection.

Answer 8

The most common major (NOT minor, which is unattractive scarring) complication is cutaneous nerve injury, which can occur in up to 5% of patients

Answer 9

Medial placement of the brachioplasty incision in the bicipital groove is preferred because the ultimate scar will be hidden when the arm is adducted. Medial placement of the incision may damage the cutaneous nerves that run in this area

Answer 10

Medial cord of the brachial plexus

Answer 11

Medial cord of the brachial plexus

Answer 12

The medial brachial cutaneous nerve runs with the basilic vein and sends two to four branches to the skin 7 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle. Another three to five branches pierce the fascia to innervate the skin at about 15 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle.

Answer 13

The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve runs in close proximity with the intramuscular septum and penetrates the fascia approximately 14 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle. At this point, the nerve runs superficially and is at risk for injury during brachioplasty.

Answer 14

While injuries to motor branches of the median and ulnar nerve have been reported, these branches run deep to the brachial fascia and are not injured unless the intramuscular septum is inadvertently punctured.

Answer 15

A)Dehiscence In appropriately selected patients, multiple body contouring procedures can be combined into a single stage if the surgery can be done in a timely fashion. Overall minor complication rates arehigher; however, per procedure complication rates do not seem to increase if more procedures are performed in a single stage. The most common complication in patients undergoing combined procedures in a single stage is related to wound healing issues (approximately 15%). Seroma is the next most common complication (approximately 10%). Infection, hematoma, and pulmonary embolism occur at rates of less than 5%.

Answer 16

Most common = Wound healing issues (approximately 15%) Seroma is the next most common complication (approximately 10%) Infection, hematoma, and pulmonary embolism occur at rates of less than 5%

Answer 17

In appropriately selected patients, multiple body contouring procedures can be combined into a single stage if the surgery can be done in a timely fashion. Overall minor complication rates arehigher; however, per procedure complication rates do not seem to increase if more procedures are performed in a single stage.

Answer 18

D) Superficial plane of suction One of the most common deformities of suction lipectomy is surface irregularity, which can have several causes. A large cannula will create a large furrow that may be visualized if the suction lipectomy is not performed evenly. Use of a single port may also lead to irregularities because the suctioning is done from only one angle. Superficial suctioning isalso more prone to visible irregularities. The best way to avoid these deformities is to use small cannulas in the deep fat, with cross-tunneling from two sites, such that the tunnels are at right angles to each other. The power source would not cause surface irregularities. Lack of compression will cause prolonged edema, but not surface irregularities.

Answer 19

A large cannula will create a large furrow that may be visualized if the suction lipectomy is not performed evenly. Use of a single port may also lead to irregularities because the suctioning is done from only one angle. Superficial suctioning isalso more prone to visible irregularities.

Answer 20

The best way to avoid these deformities is to use small cannulas in the deep fat, with cross-tunneling from two sites, such that the tunnels are at right angles to each other.

Answer 21

E ) Increased microvascular vasoconstriction The nicotine in cigarettes causes vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels with resultant decreased tissue oxygenation. Smoking also increases carboxyhemoglobin, increases platelet aggregation, increases blood viscosity, decreases collagen deposition, and decreases prostacyclin formation, which all negatively affect wound healing. In addition, vasoconstriction associated with smoking is not a transient phenomenon. Smoking a single cigarette may cause cutaneous vasoconstriction for up to 90 minutes; hence, a patient who smokes one pack of cigarettes daily remains tissue hypoxic for most of each day.

Answer 22

Smoking a single cigarette may cause cutaneous vasoconstriction for up to 90 minutes

Answer 23

Smoking also increases carboxyhemoglobin, increases platelet aggregation, increases blood viscosity, decreases collagen deposition, and decreases prostacyclin formation, which all negatively affect wound healing.

Answer 24

The proliferation of macrophages and fibroblasts, which are integral to the phases of wound healing, is also diminished by the presence of nicotine.

Answer 25

C ) Brachioplasty Hypertrophic scarring is reported to occur in up to 40% of brachioplasty cases. These scars require compression therapy, silicone sheeting, or mild corticosteroid injections. The other body regions are less likely to scar in a hypertrophic fashion

Answer 26

Hypertrophic scarring is reported to occur in up to 40% of brachioplasty cases. These scars require compression therapy, silicone sheeting, or mild corticosteroid injections. The other body regions are less likely to scar in a hypertrophic fashion

Answer 27

D ) Hematologist Multiple spontaneous abortions are highly suggestive of a hypercoagulation diathesis and should be further evaluated. Venous thromboembolic events (VTEs), which include both deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary emboli, remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in surgical patients. The most commonly associated aesthetic procedure is abdominoplasty.

Answer 28

Abdominoplasty

Answer 29

The most common genetic abnormality is Factor V Leiden, which is a mutated factor V resistant to inactivation by activated protein C.

Answer 30

This abnormality is present in 3 to 7% of the Caucasian population.

Answer 31

Factor V Leiden, prothrombin variant 20210A, antiphospholipid antibodies, protein C or S deficiency, antithrombin deficiency, and hyperhomocysteinemia

Answer 32

E ) Thiamine therapy Many massive weight-loss patients suffer from malnutrition, including thiamine deficiency, which can lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy. Treatment is intravenous administration of 100 mg/d of thiamine, continuing with 100 mg every 8 hours until resolution of symptoms. Administration of thiamine is low risk and may reverse symptoms.

Answer 33

Many massive weight-loss patients suffer from malnutrition, including thiamine deficiency, which can lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy. Treatment is intravenous administration of 100 mg/d of thiamine, continuing with 100 mg every 8 hours until resolution of symptoms. Administration of thiamine is low risk and may reverse symptoms.

Answer 34

Treatment is intravenous administration of 100 mg/d of thiamine, continuing with 100 mg every 8 hours until resolution of symptoms.

Answer 35

A ) Bleeding Garlic ingestion may also increase the risk of intraoperative or postsurgical bleeding secondary to its platelet inhibitor activity or its role as a stimulator of fibrinolytic activity

Answer 36

It is generally recommended that patients discontinue garlic use 7 days prior to surgery to reduce the risk of possible bleeding complications.

Answer 37

D ) 400 mg Each liter of solution contains 400 mg of lidocaine with a concentration of 0.04% and 1:1,000,000 epinephrine.

Answer 38

Lidocaine is used more often as the anesthetic agent in the wetting solution. It has a wider range of safety than bupivacaine (Marcaine) and is more easily reversed.

Answer 39

It is generally accepted that a dose of lidocaine up to 35 mg/kg is safewhen injected into the subcutaneous fat with solutions containing epinephrine, although doses up to 50 mg/kg have been utilized.

Answer 40

A ) Anemia Many patients who have undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery have underlying iron deficiency anemia, vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency, and fat soluble vitamin deficiency.

Answer 41

Many patients who have undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery have underlying iron deficiency anemia, vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency, and fat soluble vitamin deficiency. These deficiencies may lead to blood clotting disorder.

Answer 42

B ) CT scan of the chest The patient described most likely has an acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and should receive urgent medical attention at the nearest emergency department. Her age, recent diagnosis of breast cancer, and estrogen-based contraceptive use places her at moderate-to-high risk for deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and/or PE following surgery. In addition, the combination of large-volume liposuction and full abdominoplasty as a single procedure further increases her risk for these complications. Heart palpitations and anxiety are common complaints in patients experiencing a PE, as are shortness of breath and hyperventilation, but the diagnosis should not be overlooked in a situation like this, even if it is not a presenting symptom. A CT scan of her chest as dictated in a PE protocol is the appropriate diagnostic study to evaluate for PE and will provide the necessary justification to initiate anticoagulation therapy.

Answer 43

A ) When the discussion at the fundraiser took place Duty is created when the doctor-patient relationship is established. Simply being a physician does not obligate one to establish that relationship. The doctor-patient relationship is formed when a doctor has professional contact with a patient, but it is not necessary to see the patient physically to form this relationship. Anyone the physician supervises and has authority over, even an office clerk, can form the doctor-patient relationship with the physician. If the plastic surgeon gives specific advice, it establishes a doctor-patient relationship. A physician should never enter into a doctor-patient relationship by accident.

Answer 44

Malpractice is negligence that occurs in the performance of a profession. The four elements of negligence are: 1. Duty owed -the existence of an obligation 2. Duty breached -failure to deliver the obligation 3. Causation -the link between breach and harm 4. Damages -patient injury

Answer 45

A ) Adductor longus muscle and sartorius muscle The incidence of seroma following medial thigh lift ranges from 4 to 20%, making it one of the most common complications of body contouring. It is critical to have an appreciation of the anatomical borders of the femoral triangle for two reasons. First, the concentration of lymphatics draining the lower extremity is very high within the femoral triangle. Second, direct injury to the inguinal lymphatic system often occurs inconspicuously, and so a preemptive approach should be taken to protect these structures.The femoral triangle is bordered by the inguinal ligament, adductor longus muscle, and sartorius muscle. The iliopsoas muscle, pectineus muscle, inguinal lymph nodes, and femoral nerve, artery, and vein reside within the femoral triangle, as does the proximal portion of the great saphenous vein.

Answer 46

The femoral triangle is bordered by the inguinal ligament, adductor longus muscle, and sartorius muscle. The iliopsoas muscle, pectineus muscle, inguinal lymph nodes, and femoral nerve, artery, and vein reside within the femoral triangle, as does the proximal portion of the great saphenous vein.

Answer 47

It is critical to have an appreciation of the anatomical borders of the femoral triangle for two reasons. - First, the concentration of lymphatics draining the lower extremity is very high within the femoral triangle. - Second, direct injury to the inguinal lymphatic system often occurs inconspicuously, and so a preemptive approach should be taken to protect these structures

Answer 48

A) Vitamin A Animal studies have shown that impairment of wound healing caused by use of corticosteroids can be reversed by the oral administration of vitamin A (retinoic acid), 15,000 IU daily for seven days.

Answer 49

Circumferential lower body lift

Answer 50

Panniculectomy

Answer 51

C ) Seroma

Answer 52

Body lift procedures after massive weight loss have a complication rate of approximately 50%.

Answer 53

Early wound dehiscence may be caused by patient movement, while late wound dehiscence is often due to underlying seroma.

Answer 54

The most common complication is wound dehiscence, which occurs in greater than 30% of patients.

Answer 55

E ) Wider upper rectus muscle diastasis Men are more likely to have a wide upper rectus muscle diastasis, and women are more likely to have a lower rectus muscle diastasis. Men’s skin tends to be thicker and less prone to laxity and striation. The accumulation of flank fat is more central in men and located moreperipherally below the iliac crest in women. Men have more intra-abdominal accumulation of fat, although women can accumulate intra-abdominal fat more commonly after menopause.

Answer 56

Men are more likely to have a wide upper rectus muscle diastasis, and women are more likely to have a lower rectus muscle diastasis.

Answer 57

The accumulation of flank fat is more central in men and located more peripherally below the iliac crest in women.

Answer 58

Men have more intra-abdominal accumulation of fat, although women can accumulate intra-abdominal fat more commonly after menopause.

Answer 59

E ) Unattractive scarring The most common complication of brachioplasty in postbariatric body contouring is hypertrophic, widened, or unattractive scarring. This multifactorial problem is secondary to problems in geometry (tension and compression), multiple vectors, tissue mismatch, nutrition, and adequate resection.

Answer 60

B ) 5000 mL In the "Practice Advisory on Liposuction" the American Society of Plastic Surgeons Committee on Patient Safety defines large-volume liposuction as more than 5 L of lipoaspirate taken in one operation.

Answer 61

C ) Medial antebrachial cutaneous The medial antebrachial cutaneous (MABC) nerve may be located within the resection area of the arm during brachioplasty, leading to regional paresthesia in the upper arm and the anterior proximal forearm.

Answer 62

E ) Scarpa’s fascia of the abdominal wall It is described as the deep layer of the superficial perineal fascia (not the deep perineal fascia) and lies deep to the subcutaneous fat of the perineum. Anteriorly, it is continuous with Scarpa’s fascia of the abdominal wall. It is distinct, unrelated, and not continuous with the anterior rectus sheath. Posteriorly, Colles fascia fuses with the posterior border of the urogenital diaphragm. It does not occur posterior to this structure. The Colles fascia is high in elastin content, giving it a yellow hue which distinguishes it from nearby white muscular fascia.

Answer 63

The Colles fascia is high in elastin content, giving it a yellow hue which distinguishes it from nearby white muscular fascia

Answer 64

It is described as the deep layer of the superficial perineal fascia (not the deep perineal fascia) and lies deep to the subcutaneous fat of the perineum. Anteriorly, it is continuous with Scarpa’s fascia of the abdominal wall. Posteriorly, Colles fascia fuses with the posterior border of the urogenital diaphragm. It does not occur posterior to this structure.

Answer 65

(B)5 cm above the vulvar commissure To maximize the lift in the mons area without incurring an abnormal contour, the incision should be placed 5 to 7 cm above the vulvar commissure and within the hairline.

Answer 66

To maximize the lift in the mons area without incurring an abnormal contour, the incision should be placed 5 to 7 cm above the vulvar commissure and within the hairline.

Answer 67

(D)Oral contraceptives Patients undergoing bariatric procedures have many of the known risk factors for embolic events, such as long procedure duration, immobilization, and obesity. The risk of deep venous thrombosis, even with prophylaxis, has been reported to be as great as 9%. Oral contraceptives and estrogen replacement therapy are known to increase the rate of embolic problems, and patients should be counseled to stop these medications, if possible, before the procedure.

Answer 68

(A)Autologous gluteal flaps Autologous gluteal flaps provide easily accessible donor tissue that can be used simultaneously in body lift procedures. The dermal fat flaps can be elevated safely to autoaugment the buttocks. This technique adds no more than 45 minutes to the procedure and does not addto the usual complications of body lift procedures in general

Answer 69

Autologous fat transfer can be used to enhance buttock shape, but unfortunately the buttocks of many of these patients are deflated and do not have adequate donor sites for grafting.

Answer 70

Silicone prostheses, both solid and gel types, are associated with less than optimal outcomes because of palpability and a greater risk of infection and dehiscence.

Answer 71

(B)Administration of enoxaparin and application of sequential compression devices

Answer 72

(C)Superficial dissection over the femoral triangle

Answer 73

The superficial fascia of the medial thigh consists of two layers: superficial and deep.

Answer 74

Using the Colles fascia as the central anchor for the medial thigh lift has produced more consistent and long-lasting results, decreasing the risk of problems commonly associated with the classic skin-suspension medial thigh lift—widened scars and labial distortion.

Answer 75

(A)Axillary An important etiologic mechanism of the aesthetic arm deformity is relaxation of a longitudinal fascial system sling that extends from the clavicle to the soft tissues of the posteromedial aspect of the arm via the clavipectoral and axillary fascia. Reanchoring the soft tissues of the posteromedial aspect of the arm to the axillary fascia with nonabsorbable sutures addresses the relaxation of the axillary fascia sling and forms the basis for the anchor brachioplasty. Similarly to anchoring the soft tissues of the medial aspect of the thigh to the Colles fascia (perineum) in medial thigh lifts, fascial anchoring in brachioplasties provides more predictable results while reducing complications.

Answer 76

Similarly to anchoring the soft tissues of the medial aspect of the thigh to the Colles fascia (perineum) in medial thigh lifts, fascial anchoring in brachioplasties provides more predictable results while reducing complications.

Answer 77

Reanchoring the soft tissues of the posteromedial aspect of the arm to the axillary fascia with nonabsorbable sutures addresses the relaxation of the axillary fascia sling and forms the basis for the anchor brachioplasty.

Answer 78

(B)Medial antebrachial cutaneous The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve branches, together with the basilic vein, exit the deep fascia of the medial arm at the transition between the middle and distal thirds of the arm. Care should be taken at the time of surgery to identify this nerve at this level and maintain more fat on the deep fascia to prevent injury.

Answer 79

(D)Superficial large cannula suction through a single port site

Answer 80

(E)Pulmonary embolism Pulmonary embolization with fat or thrombus is the most common cause of death from suction lipectomy. One survey of 917 aesthetic plastic surgeons showed the leading cause of death from suction lipectomy to be thromboembolism (23%), followed by perforation of the abdomen/viscera (15%), anesthesia/sedation/medication (10%), fat embolism (9%), and unknown or confidential causes (29%).

Answer 81

thromboembolism

Answer 82

(C)Medial longitudinal In a patient with severe medial thigh skin redundancy after massive weight loss, a medial longitudinal approach is currently preferred because it removes a maximal amount of skin redundancy along the entire length of the thigh while concealing the incision in the medial thigh skin.

Answer 83

Medial longitudinal approach is currently preferred because it removes a maximal amount of skin redundancy along the entire length of the thigh while concealing the incision in the medial thigh skin.

Answer 84

A crescentic groin incision does attempt to conceal the scar in the groin but can distort the vulvar structures when placed under tension, and is less effective when medial thigh laxityis severe

Answer 85

An anterior oblique or posterior oblique incision is not preferred because of the conspicuous location of the resulting scars

Answer 86

A transverse incision is inadequate to remove enough skin and results in a poor cosmetic outcome

Answer 87

(A)Doppler ultrasonography of the lower extremities Among plastic surgery procedures, abdominoplasty has one of the highest rates of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism. It is essential to know the proper course of management of this major cause of postoperative morbidity and mortality. Clinical workup may vary with the severity of the symptoms and physical examination of the patient, and not all clinical investigations may be available to the surgeon. However, a clear path of investigation and treatment should be developed.

Answer 88

(D)Discontinue the infiltration, check the composition of the infiltrate, and assess for possible accidental intravascular injection The infiltration of large amounts of lidocaine and epinephrine is not without risk. Medication errors are missed because the surgeon fails to check that the operating room personnel have properly constituted the wetting solution, with severe consequences. Wetting solution preparation is often relegated to junior personnel who are unaware of the importance of correct formulation. Intravascular injections can also contribute to lidocaine or epinephrine complications and toxicity. Supraventricular tachycardia is a normal heart response to adrenaline, but it nevertheless should be assessed by the surgeon and anesthesiologist with a good electrocardiogram. The infiltration should be discontinued. The vital signs of the patient described will determine further treatment

Answer 89

(D)Seroma The most common complication of a lower body lift procedure is seroma. In a large retrospective series, seromas occurred in 37.5% of all patients; wound dehiscence (12%), infection (8%), and pulmonary embolism (6%) also occurred frequently after this type of surgery. Other complications such as psychiatric difficulties, unscheduled hospitalizations, skin necrosis, and postoperative hematomas may be common but are not reported as often. Complications seem to be associated with higher preoperative body mass index (weight) and history of smoking.

Answer 90

This procedure is indicated in patients with relaxation and resultant ptosis of the buttock and thigh tissues. In addition to moderate or more severe skin laxity, the potential for laxity to develop after liposuction is an indication for an excisional lifting procedure over liposuction alone.

Answer 91

Direct excision of the gluteal fold can result in flattening of the buttocks, asymmetry, and hypertrophic scarring.

Answer 92

Flattening of the buttocks and loss of gluteal fold definition, as well as hypertrophic scarring, can also result from this technique

Answer 93

(E) 2450 mg It has been shown that the use of ―tumescent fluid‖ with 1:1,000,000 epinephrine can be safely given with lidocaine doses as high as 35 mg/kg.

Answer 94

In the heart, this mechanism depresses Vmax (i.e., the rate of depolarization during phase 0 of the cardiac action potential) and might lead to reentrant arrhythmias.

Answer 95

(E) 3:1 Tumescent suction lipectomy calls for the largest volume of infiltrate, using up to 3 or 4 ml of infiltrate for each 1 ml of planned aspirate. With this technique, blood loss is approximately 1% of the aspirate volume. The first method of suction lipectomy, the dry technique, was performed under general anesthesia without infiltration of subcutaneous solutions before insertion of the suction lipectomy cannula. This technique commonly caused substantial swelling and discoloration and blood loss of 20% to 45% in the suction aspirate. Except in limited applications, this approach has been abandoned.

Answer 96

1% of aspirate volume

Answer 97

(B) Nutritional supplementation In this patient, the large open wound has failed to show expected progress in healing. Aggressive nutritional evaluation and supplementation should be performed. -> Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is the most commonly performed bariatric procedure and combines elements of restrictive and malabsorptive procedures. The size of the stomach is reduced by stapling, and a variable segment of small bowel is bypassed using a Roux limb. Major elective surgery will require an increased calorie and protein consumption of approximately 25%. Most bariatric patients who have stabilized in their weight loss should be able to meet these needs. However, burns, trauma, infection, and large open wounds can substantially increase these nutritional requirements to the point at which they cannot be met through oral intake. In addition to increased metabolism resulting from these pathologic processes, a substantial amount of protein can be lost from a large wound. Exudate from an open wound may contain up to 44 mg/ml protein and result in losses that the bariatric patient cannot match.

Answer 98

Major elective surgery will require an increased calorie and protein consumption of approximately 25%.

Answer 99

Exudate from an open wound may contain up to 44 mg/ml protein.

Answer 100

(A) 1% With tumescent liposuction, blood makes up 1% of the aspirate.

Answer 101

(A) Administer a 1-L bolus of crystalloid Hydration during suction lipectomy is very important to prevent complications. Too little fluid causes hypotension and too much fluid can cause pulmonary edema. As larger amounts of infiltrate are used with the tumescent technique, it is difficult to know how much intravenous fluid to give to the patient. One study concludes that the combination of infiltrate and intravenous fluids (1.5 L and 1.5 L in this case) should add up to twice the aspirate removed (2 + 2 L). Therefore, this patient should receive 1 L of fluid in the recovery area. Careful monitoring of blood pressure, tissue turgor, and urine output will confirm that the patient is euvolemic.

Answer 102

One study concludes that the combination of infiltrate and intravenous fluids should add up to twice the aspirate removed

Answer 103

(A) Central infraumbilical Suction lipectomy of the central portion of the abdominoplasty flap can lead to loss of skin in the central and inferior portions of the flap and should be avoided. A critical step in avoiding skinloss is leaving intact the subcutaneous layer of fat between the skin and the fascia of Scarpa. Only very limited, cautious suction lipectomy should be attempted in the central portion of the abdominoplasty flap and should be limited to globular fat deep to the fascia of Scarpa. The lateral portions of the abdominoplasty flap can be suctioned deep to the fascia of Scarpa. The epigastrium may also be suctioned carefully without complications. The hips and thighs can be suctioned aggressively or defatted directly without concern for skin loss in the abdominoplasty flap.

Answer 104

Suction lipectomy of the central portion of the abdominoplasty flap can lead to loss of skin in the central and inferior portions of the flap and should be avoided.

Answer 105

A critical step in avoiding skinloss is leaving intact the subcutaneous layer of fat between the skin and the fascia of Scarpa.

Answer 106

-Only very limited, cautious suction lipectomy should be attempted in the central portion of the abdominoplasty flap and should be limited to globular fat deep to the fascia of Scarpa. -The lateral portions of the abdominoplasty flap can be suctioned deep to the fascia of Scarpa. -The epigastrium may also be suctioned carefully without complications. The hips and thighs can be suctioned aggressively or defatted directly without concern for skin loss in the abdominoplasty flap.

Answer 107

(E) 35 mg/kg The maximum recommended dose of lidocaine is 35 mg/kg when injected into subcutaneous fat with solutions containing epinephrine. Doses of up to 50 mg/kg have been used, but are not generally recommended because of toxicity concerns

Answer 108

(D) Seroma Seroma management is a significant part of postoperative care for up to one third of patients who undergo belt lipectomy, and patients should be made aware of the significant morbidity associated with the procedure. The other complications listed affect less than 10% of patients.

Answer 109

Combines abdominoplasty with circumferential excision of skin and fat

Answer 110

Procedures that increase intraabdominal pressure, such as hernia repair, increase the risk of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary emboli.

Answer 111

Infection rates are less than 5%.

Answer 112

(E) Lymphatic plexus The lymphatics of the lower extremity travel to the superficial inguinal nodes and deep inguinal nodes. Because superficial lymph vessels are small, they are prone to injury, which can lead to wound-healing problems such as lymphoceles and seromas as well as problems associated with recurrent peripheral edema. The femoral vein, artery, and nerve run deeper, beneath the inguinal ligament at the level of the incision, significantly deeper than the fragile lymphatics of the superficial inguinal nodes.

Answer 113

The lymphatics of the lower extremity travel to the superficial inguinal nodes and deep inguinal nodes.

Answer 114

The deep inguinal nodes are situated just medial to the femoral vein

Answer 115

The superficial nodes receive vessels from the gluteal region, infraumbilical abdominal wall, perianal region, and external genitalia as well as most of the superficial lymph vessels of the lower limb.

Answer 116

They receive lymphatics that accompany the femoral vessels, lymph vessels from the genitalia, and efferents from the superficial nodes.

Answer 117

Because superficial lymph vessels are small, they are prone to injury, which can lead to wound-healing problems such as lymphoceles and seromas as well as problems associated with recurrent peripheral edema

Answer 118

(A) 0% With the superwet technique, blood loss is approximately 1% of the suction aspirate. This technique uses a 1:1 ratio of subcutaneous infiltrate to aspirate. The infiltrate consists of saline or Ringer’s lactate solution, epinephrine, and in some cases lidocaine

Answer 119

(B) Cephalic vein Because the cephalic vein runs anterior and superior to the dissection planes used in brachioplasty, it is not likely to be injured during this procedure. The basilic vein, intercostobrachial nerve, and medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm are aligned slightly medially and posteriorly along the arm in the area of dissection for a standard brachioplasty. Therefore, they are susceptible to injury during the procedure.

Answer 120

The cephalic vein runs anterior and superior to the dissection planes used in brachioplasty

Answer 121

It is aligned slightly medially and posteriorly along the arm in the area of dissection for a standard brachioplasty, and therefore susceptible to injury during the procedure.

Answer 122

It is aligned slightly medially and posteriorly along the arm in the area of dissection for a standard brachioplasty, and therefore susceptible to injury during the procedure.

Answer 123

It is aligned slightly medially and posteriorly along the arm in the area of dissection for a standard brachioplasty, and therefore susceptible to injury during the procedure.

Answer 124

(B) 30% One recent study of 132 patients who underwent abdominoplasty reported a complication rate of 48% in smokers,compared with a complication rate of 15% in those patients who did not smoke. Another study of 199 abdominoplasty patients reported a complication rate of 52% in smokers and 24% in nonsmokers

Answer 125

Approximately 15-24%

Answer 126

Approximately 50%

Answer 127

(E) Thermal burns Ultrasonic-assisted suction lipectomy (UAL) is currently performed as a complement to, not a replacement for, traditional suction lipectomy. This technique involves the transmission of ultrasonic energy via a transducer to cavitate adipocytes and emulsify the liquefied fat, making aspiration of fat easier. UAL is advantageous in removing fat from difficult or fibrous body areas, such as the epigastrium and upper abdomen. It is also purported to stimulate skin retraction after superficial treatment. UAL is associated with an increased incidence of internal and external cutaneous burns resulting from the intense heat generated by sound waves; this complication does not occur with traditional suction lipectomy. In addition, there are concerns regarding the unknown long-term effects of sound waves and exposure to high temperatures, bond dissociation within molecules, production of free radicals within the body, and other factors

Answer 128

(C) 50% According to the results of one recent study that involved a significant population of overweight women, the mean percentage of fat in the breast was 61%. Another study of women predominantly of normal body weight showed a mean percentage of fat of 48%. In addition, these studies showed that younger patients have significant amounts of fat in the breast, even though the percentage of fat was shown to increase with age. Body mass index had more influence on the percentage of breast fat than age, and the amount of fat in the breast could not be accurately assessed on physical examination.

Answer 129

Younger women tend to have fattier breasts

Answer 130

(E) 4800 Of the levels listed, 4800 mg is 60 mg/kg in an 80-kgpatient, and is higher than the reported safety standards

Answer 131

(C) liposarcoma Suction lipectomy is not recommended for removal of malignant tumors, such as liposarcoma, because this method of resection is often incomplete. In addition, such tumors may be seeded and histopathologic examination of the tumor specimen may be compromised.

Answer 132

Indications for suction lipectomy include axillary hyperhidrosis, in which apocrine and eccrine glands are removed from the axilla using a superficial technique. This results in reduced sweating with a minimal amount of scarring. Although repeat procedures are necessary in approximately 30% of patients, suction lipectomy produces longer lasting effects than treatment with botulinum toxin (Botox)

Answer 133

Appropriate treatment

Answer 134

In patients with HIV infection, administration of protease inhibitor agents may cause abnormal redistribution of fat. Affected patients may develop adiposity in the abdominal and mandibular regions and atrophy in other areas, such as the nasolabial fold.

Answer 135

Madelung’s disease, or benign symmetric lipomatosis, is a disorder of unknown cause that is characterized by diffuse growth of nonencapsulated lipomas, especially in the neck, shoulders, and posterior trunk.

Answer 136

Suction lipectomy can increase range of motion and provide good cosmesis.

Answer 137

Patients with both congenital and acquired lymphedema can benefit fromsuction lipectomy to decrease tissue thickness. Although its effects are temporary, it provides significant relief and increases function. Other measures, such as massage and use of compressive garments, can be performed in combination with the lipectomy procedure

Answer 138

(B) Superwet The superwet technique was first used for subcutaneous infiltration in the late 1980s. This technique involves the injection of a diluted solution of anesthesia and vasopressors that is of equal volume to the estimated volume of fat removed, or an infiltrate-to-aspirate ratio of 1:1. Blood loss in this technique has beenshown to vary from 1% to 4% of the aspirate.

Answer 139

(B) Excision lipectomy using a medial approach In this patient who desires correction of excess skin and fat in the upper arms, the most appropriate management is excision lipectomy using a medial approach. This procedure effectively removes the skin and fat, leaves only a medial scar, and is appropriate for patients who have lost an excessive amount of weight. Mostsurgeons recommend an elliptical excision, which results in a scar that extends from the medial epicondyle to the axillary dome. The scar is not visible with the arms in adduction. Circumferential excision lipectomy provides only limited contour correction and results in unsightly scars. Excision lipectomy via a posterolateral approach leaves a visible scar. Suction-assisted lipectomy is preferred in younger patients who have excess fat without excess skin.

Answer 140

Medial approach. This procedure effectively removes the skin and fat, leaves only a medial scar, and is appropriate for patients who have lost an excessive amount of weight. Mostsurgeons recommend an elliptical excision, which results in a scar that extends from the medial epicondyle to the axillary dome. The scar is not visible with the arms in adduction.

Answer 141

(B) Lateral cutaneous In this 36-year-old woman who has numbness of the anterolateral right thigh one month after undergoing blepharoplasty, the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh is most likely injured.

Answer 142

This nerve arises from L2-3 and passes through the inguinal ligament approximately 1 cm medial to the anterosuperior iliac spine. It then passes superficially to the sartorius muscle and divides into anterior and posterior branches in the thigh.

Answer 143

The anterior branch becomes superficial about 10 cm below the anterosuperior iliac spine, supplying sensation to the skin of the anterior and lateral thigh. Injury is likely to result in numbness and dysesthesia in this region

Answer 144

Genital and femoral

Answer 145

Sensation to the skin of the scrotum, mons pubis, or labia

Answer 146

Sensation to the skin over the upper part of the femoral triangle

Answer 147

Lateral and anterior branches

Answer 148

The lateral branch provides sensation to the skin of the lateral part of the buttocks

Answer 149

Sensation to the skin of the abdomen above the pubis

Answer 150

The ilioinguinal nerve originates from L1 and passes through the superficial inguinal ring to supply sensation to the skin of the superomedial portion of the thigh and the scrotum or mons pubis.

Answer 151

The obturator nerve arises from L2-4 and courses through the lower pelvis with the obturator vessels.

Answer 152

It then enters the thigh to provide sensation to the skin of the medial and lower thigh.

Answer 153

(C) Flattening of the gluteal fold Adverse effects reported with transverse excision lipectomy include flattening and asymmetry of the buttocks and hypertrophic scarring. Dimpling of the buttocks is more commonly associated with suction lipectomy in the region overlying the gluteal muscles because of the large amount of fibrous septa between the fascia and skin. Widening of the gluteal cleft is uncommon because the incision is made parallel to the gluteal fold. Fat necrosis does not generally occur in the buttocks because of the good vascularity in this region. Long-term painful scarring is also rare.

Answer 154

(C) Suspension of the superficial fascial system Suspension of the superficial fascial system of the inferior skin flap has decreased the incidence of unfavorable scars, vulvar traction, and ptosis deformities previously associated with thetransverse thigh/buttock lift. Anchoring the skin flap to Colles' fascia anteriorly has lead to more consistent, reliable results following lifting. Other refinements such as direct undermining of the distal flap, performing adjunctive suction lipectomy, and using an anterior medial skin resection pattern have been associated with an improvement in overall results in those patients undergoing transverse thigh/buttock lifts but have not specifically decreased scar widening, traction deformities, and recurrent ptosis.

Answer 155

Suspension of the superficial fascial system of the inferior skin flap has decreased the incidence of unfavorable scars, vulvar traction, and ptosis deformities previously associated with thetransverse thigh/buttock lift.

Answer 156

Anchoring the skin flap to Colles' fascia anteriorly has lead to more consistent, reliable results following lifting.

Answer 157

Direct undermining, 3 to 4 cm beyond the planned line of resection, releases the superficial fascial attachments distally and allows for a greater lift.

Answer 158

(A) Reassurance and continued observation In this patient who has persistent weakness of the lower lip following submental suction lipectomy, the most appropriate next step is reassurance of the patient and continued observation. Because nerves and blood vessels are typically not transected during suction lipectomy, any resulting injuries are likely to be neurapraxias, which in most patients will completely resolve within three months.

Answer 159

80% are above the inferior border of the mandible | 20% are below the inferior border of the mandible

Answer 160

<1% Submental suction lipectomy is considered to be a safe procedure as long as the cannula is passed superficialto the platysma; however, if the cannula is placed beneath the platysma, injury to the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve may result.

Answer 161

Because nerves and blood vessels are typically not transected during suction lipectomy, any resulting injuries are likely to be neurapraxias, which in most patients will completely resolve within three months.

Answer 162

(E) Thromboembolism The incidence of fatalities associated with suction lipectomy performed in the outpatient setting is one in every 5000 procedures. According to a recent study of deaths associated with suction lipectomy procedures, in those patients in whom a cause of death was definitively established, 23% of the fatalities were shown to have resulted from thromboembolism.

Answer 163

(E) Widening of the scar

Answer 164

Widened scars

Answer 165

Widened scars are the most common long-term complication following brachioplasty. These scars, which are typically located on the posteromedial upper arms, are red and visible for a minimum of one year and in fact may never completely fade. Patients should be informed of the potential for widened, visible scars prior to undergoing the procedure.

Answer 166

(A) Genitofemoral The genitofemoral nerve originates from L1-2 and courses deep in the abdominal wall. It pierces the fascia below the inguinal ligament and supplies sensation to the skin of the femoral triangle and pubis. Because this nerve lies inferior and deep to the abdominoplasty incision, it is not at risk for injury during an abdominoplasty procedure.

Answer 167

During abdominoplasty, there is an increased risk for nerve entrapment or injury to the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves because of their anatomic location. Although the intercostal nerves are less prone to injury, they still lie in the region of the abdominoplasty.

Answer 168

Lower body lift This will remove the excess skin and fat in the lower abdomen and thighs typically seen in patients who have lost an extensive amount of weight.

Answer 169

Panniculectomy The obese 45-year-old woman who has a large, overhanging area of skin and fat (pannus) with ulceration should undergo panniculectomy. In this patient, gastric bypass may be performed either simultaneously or prior to the panniculectomy procedure.

Answer 170

(D) Suprapubic region Following abdominoplasty, skin necrosis is most likely to occur in the suprapubic region. The blood supply to the abdominoplasty is derived from the lateral interstitial vessels; because of this, the lower midline region of the flap is most at risk for devascularization. In addition, downward transposition of any pre-existing scars on the upper abdomen will limit blood flow and ultimately inhibit flap vascularization.

Answer 171

Derived from lateral interstitial vessels

Answer 172

Following abdominoplasty, skin necrosis is most likely to occur in the suprapubic region.

Answer 173

The blood supply to the abdominoplasty is derived from the lateral interstitial vessels; because of this, the lower midline region of the flap is most at risk for devascularization. In addition, downward transposition of any pre-existing scars on the upper abdomen will limit blood flow and ultimately inhibit flap vascularization.

Answer 174

(A) Clavipectoral This patient's skin laxity is most likely caused by a loosening of the clavipectoral fascia. Anatomic studies have shown that in youth the soft tissues of the posteromedial arm are firmly suspended to a tough yet dynamic fascial system sling that ultimately gains its strength from the clavicular periosteum by means of the clavipectoral and axillary fasciae. The clavipectoral fascia lies deep to the pectoralis major muscle and extends from the clavicle to the dome of the axillary fascia. Loosening of these connections, combined with relaxation of the fascia itself with age, weight fluctuations, and gravitational pull, results in significant ptosis of the posteromedial arm. Other mechanisms contributing to arm ptosis include relaxation and stretching of the skin and superficial fascial system of the arm, as well as flaccidity of the posterior arm muscles resulting from age and lack of exercise. Fascial anchoring brachioplasty is used to correct this deformity.

Answer 175

Anatomic studies have shown that in youth the soft tissues of the posteromedial arm are firmly suspended to a tough yet dynamic fascial system sling that ultimately gains its strength from the clavicular periosteum by means of the clavipectoral and axillary fasciae.

Answer 176

The clavipectoral fascia lies deep to the pectoralis major muscle and extends from the clavicle to the dome of the axillary fascia.

Answer 177

Loosening of connections between the clavicopectoral fascia and the soft tissues of the posteromedial arm, combined with relaxation of the fascia itself with age, weight fluctuations, and gravitational pull, results in significant ptosis of the posteromedial arm. Other mechanisms contributing to arm ptosis include relaxation and stretching of the skin and superficial fascial system of the arm, as well as flaccidity of the posterior arm muscles resulting from age and lack of exercise.

Answer 178

(C) Seroma formation The most common complication of a full abdominoplasty performed in conjunction with suction lipectomy is the formation of seromas.

Answer 179

(A) Failure to plicate the rectus muscle In this patient who has developed a supraumbilical bulge after undergoing a combined full abdominoplasty and suction lipectomy procedure, the most likely cause is a failure to plicate the rectus muscle. In standard abdominoplasty procedures, a low horizontal or W-shaped skin incision is made. The rectus diastasis is typically marked and then directly plicated both above and below the umbilicus and tapered superiorly toward the xiphoid. Alternately, the surgeon can create an incision into the fascia and then plicate the muscle in the same manner. If neither of these techniques is performed, a relative laxity of the upper abdominal region can develop, resulting in the appearance of a supraumbilical bulge.

Answer 180

Failure to plicate the rectus muscle

Answer 181

(C) Brachioplasty Instead of helping to resolve the ptosis, further weight loss can actually worsen it. In the same way, suction-assisted lipectomy canworsen the ptosis by creating further laxity in the overlying skin. A regimented exercise program is only effective for patients with minimal skin and soft-tissue laxity. The thermal effect of ultrasound-assisted lipectomy will tighten the skin but will not correct the underlying ptosis

Answer 182

The thermal effect of ultrasound-assisted lipectomy will tighten the skin but will not correct the underlying ptosis

Answer 183

A) Abdominoplasty The cumulative effect of multiple procedures performed during a single operation increases the potential that complications may develop. Large-volume liposuction, combined with other procedures such as abdominoplasty, can cause serious complications. Death associated with isolated lipoplasty is rare (0.0021%, or one per 47,415), but mortality increases significantly when lipoplasty is combined with other procedures. When combined with non-abdominoplasty procedures, lipoplasty mortality increases to one per 7314; when combined with abdominoplasty, with or without other procedures, the lipoplasty mortality increases to one per 3281. The presumed benefits of combined procedures must thus be weighed against potential untoward events. Studies indicate that epidural anesthesia combined with the infusion of anesthetic infiltrate provides patients with a consistent intraoperative comfort level. Data from the few anesthesia studies that have specifically assessed patients undergoing liposuction confirm the safety of general anesthesia, epidural anesthesia, spinal anesthesia, moderate sedation, and local anesthesia for this procedure. It should be noted, however, that epidural anesthesia and spinal anesthesia can cause vasodilation and hypotension, thereby necessitating the administration of excess fluid and increasing the risk of fluid overload. Based on the patient’s history, physical examination, review of systems, laboratory testing, and/or a medical specialist’s evaluation, the physician should select the patient’s American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical classification rating: Type 1: A normal healthy patient; Type 2: A patient with mild systemic disease; Type 3: A patient with severe systemic disease; Type 4: A patient with severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life. ASA Type 1 and Type 2 patients are candidates for ambulatory and office-based surgery. The patient described is a Type 2 patient, a classification rating that represents patients who have any of the following conditions that are under control without systemic compromise: diabetes mellitus, hypertension, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, hematologic disorders, arthritis, and neuropathy. Large-volume liposuction is defined as the removal of 5000 mL or greater of total aspirate during a single procedure. A review of the scientific literature shows that there are no scientific data available to support a specific volume maximum at which point liposuction is no longer safe. The super-wet technique, introduced in the mid-1980s, uses larger volumes of subcutaneous infiltrate, whereby 1 to 2 mL of solution is infused for each 1 mL of fat to be removed. The infiltrate solution consists of saline or Ringer’s lactate with epinephrine and, in some cases, lidocaine. Using this method, blood loss generally decreases to less than 1 to 2% of the aspirate volume.

Answer 184

E) Vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency Thiamine deficiency is most often identified shortly after bariatric surgery but can be diagnosed later. Some patients can develop Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy (WKE). Body stores of thiamine can last from 3 to 6 weeks, and thiamine deficiency is more associated with decreased dietary intake. Although clinical manifestations are very uncommon, and WKE is considered a rare complication, approximately 11% of patients who have undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery and take vitamin supplementation show evidence of thiamine deficiency 2 years postoperatively. The hallmark of thiamine deficiency is neurologic symptoms, but in contrast to WKE, patients rarely exhibit confusion, ataxia, and oculomotor abnormalities. If thiamine deficiency is not recognized and treated, it can have devastating results, including irreversible brain damage and death. Full nutritional workup of patients is critical. Confusion is a symptom of diabetic ketosis, but diabetic ketosis is notable for signs of dehydration and excessive thirst or urination, and is associated with Kussmaul respirations. Acute thyroiditis has symptoms of pain and swelling of the anterior neck. Pulmonary embolism can have symptoms of respiratory distress and right-sided heart strain. Early pregnancy often results in nausea, but not lethargy and confusion.

Answer 185

A) Deep vein thrombosis A history of two late-term miscarriages stands out as a significant risk factor for thrombophilia (inherited and acquired) and subsequent deep vein thrombosis. It is imperative that these patients be identified and further evaluated. If abdominoplasty is performed, chemoprophylaxis is required. The most common inherited thrombophilia is factor V Leiden, which is present in 3 to 7% of the Caucasian population. Multiple inherited thrombophilic conditions can be present in the same individual. Studies have shown that complication rates in abdominoplasty increase in patients with a BMI greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2. Based upon history and physical examination alone, the other complications of hematoma, infection, recurrent diastasis, or wound dehiscence should not be significantly increased.

Answer 186

A) Contour irregularities The subcutaneous fat of the abdomen is anatomically arranged in two layers: superficial and deep. The superficial adipose layer is located 1 to 2 mm below the dermis and is dense and compact with numerous septations. The deep adipose layer is loose and areolar with few septa. Conventional or traditional liposuction is performed within the deep adipose layer with larger cannulas. Superficial liposuction or subdermal liposuction involves the removal of fat from the superficial compartment found 1 to 2 mm below the dermis, disrupting the extensive septations. Most complications following liposuction are minor and resolve without further surgical intervention. However, the most common complications following superficial liposuction are contour irregularities. Less common complications associated with superficial liposuction include seroma, hyperpigmentation, infection, hypertrophic scar, chronic induration, skin necrosis, and infection.

Answer 187

E) Transversus abdominis plane block Innervation of the anterolateral abdominal wall arises from the anterior rami of spinal nerves T7 to L1. These branches include the intercostal nerves (T7-T11), the subcostal nerve (T12), and the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves (L1). Because these nerves travel in the plane between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles, they can be conveniently blocked in this area with a single transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block on each side. Although the other nerve block techniques are frequently used in combination, each covers a smaller territory or single dermatome. The TAP block may be performed via several different approaches. Most experts agree that there is a reliable block of the T10 to L1 dermatomes when the lateral approach from the triangle of Petit is used. The subcostal approach of the TAP block can give a more cephalad block. The combination of bilateral TAP blocks and rectus sheath injections has been found to decrease the need for postoperative narcotic use after abdominoplasty. It has also been useful for patients receiving transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) and deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) flaps. The TAP block was also found to be superior to conventional ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve blocks in a comparison study of open inguinal hernia repairs.

Answer 188

B) Hypertrophic scar In general, patients are satisfied with the results of brachioplasty. Complications are not uncommon and some studies report complication rates as high as 50%. Most of these complications are minor in nature. Wound dehiscence is managed with dressing changes. Hematoma and seromas are typically managed with observation or aspiration. In the case of infections, the majority are managed with oral antibiotics. The most common reason for additional surgery after brachioplasty is to revise the scar. Many patients will have an unfavorable scar that either hypertrophies or widens. This can be addressed by a scar revision, laser treatment, or triamcinolone acetonide (Kenalog) injection.

Answer 189

B) Arm dermis to axillary dermis to axillary fascia The popularity of brachioplasty has significantly increased in America over the past decade, in large part because of the number of patients undergoing bariatric surgery for morbid obesity. In this population of patients who have undergone massive weight loss, the severity of excess upper extremity skin mandates a long, often hypertrophic scar in the bicipital groove, which is generally accepted by patients. By contrast, older patients with skin laxity but little lipodystrophy and no history of significant weight change are hard-pressed to accept this visible and often unpredictable scar. For this population, minimal-incision brachioplasty has emerged as an excellent solution and has itself been increasing in popularity over the past few years. In minimal-incision brachioplasty, incisions are limited to the axilla. The procedure is usually combined with suction lipoplasty to remove some excess upper extremity fat, to treat dog ears at the proximal and distal extent of the scar, or to facilitate undermining. Several key maneuvers improve the appearance of the scar and are tantamount to achieving high patient satisfaction after this procedure. The benefit of anchoring the superficial fascial system was first recognized by surgeons performing traditional brachioplasty procedures. A similar concept applies to minimal-incision brachioplasty, where anchoring of the arm and axillary dermis to the superficial fascia is seen to have several advantages. As part of a layered closure, this technique distributes tension in a more even and controlled manner, releasing the high tension on the final skin closure and decreasing the risk of a widened scar. Moreover, these sutures close the dead space within the axilla and recreate the axillary hollow. Suturing the arm dermis to the axillary dermis without fascial reinforcement results in a high-tension closure and often a widened, hypertrophic scar. Suturing the skin to the deeper fascial layers would be difficult and deforming.

Answer 190

D) Lateral femoral cutaneous In several studies of complications of abdominoplasty, the most common nerve injury was to the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. Symptoms include anterior and lateral thigh burning, tingling, and/or numbness that increase with standing, walking, or hip extension. The genitofemoral nerve supplies the proximal portion of the thigh about the femoral triangle just lateral to the skin that is innervated by the ilioinguinal nerve. Nerve injury may result from hernia repair, but injury to this nerve is rare. The ilioinguinal nerve arises from the fusion of T12 and L1 nerve roots and pierces the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles. The nerve then supplies sensory branches to supply the pubic symphysis, the superior and medial aspect of the femoral triangle, and either the root of the penis and anterior scrotum in the male or the mons pubis and labia majora in the female. The nerve can be injured in abdominoplasty and other lower abdominal incisions. Symptoms include paresthesia of the skin along the inguinal ligament. The sensation may radiate to the lower abdomen. Pain may be localized to the medial groin, the labia majora or scrotum, and the inner thigh. The iliohypogastric nerve arises primarily from L1. The distribution of the cutaneous sensation of the iliohypogastric nerve most commonly is a small region just superior to the pubis. The iliohypogastric nerve is rarely injured in isolation. Symptoms include burning pain into the inguinal and suprapubic region. Saphenous nerve symptoms of entrapment may include a deep aching sensation in the thigh, knee pain, and paresthesia in the cutaneous distribution of the nerve in the leg and foot.

Answer 191

A) Combining the surgeries can be done safely via any approach for TAH Performing abdominoplasty in combination with other procedures has become a much more common request from patients. Advantages to this approach would include one recovery period versus multiple (which would minimize time away from work and or family, financial advantage to the patient, and a reduced need for multiple hospitalizations and exposure to anesthesia). Several studies have proven the safety of performing abdominoplasty combined with intra-abdominal procedures such as total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH). While the safety profile of combining these surgeries has been well proven, the risk of thromboembolic events is increased due to the extended time of surgery, so that aggressive deep venous thrombus prophylaxis must be administered perioperatively such as set forth by the Plastic Surgery Task Force on Deep Venous Thrombosis Prophylaxis. A TAH may be done via open or laparoscopic approach, depending on the gynecologist’s preference or patient’s chosen method. In addition, as robotically assisted gynecologic procedures have gained widespread acceptance, this approach for a TAH may also be combined with abdominoplasty surgery. Typically, if a laparoscopic or robotic method were chosen, the gynecologist would start the procedure; this way the port scars may be planned such that they can be excised within the abdominoplasty flap to be removed. Although the abdominoplasty flap may be raised off of the fascia before port placement, this usually causes the ports to be more unstable without the added support of the skin and soft tissues to properly hold them in place.

Answer 192

D) Leave at least 1 cm of fat over the brachial fascia in the proximal arm Among the complications that have been reported following brachioplasty are injuries to the sensory nerves that traverse the medial arm. The most likely nerve to be injured is the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve. It perforates the antebrachial fascia at a fairly constant distance of 14 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle, putting it at a greater risk of injury than either the ulnar or median nerves, both of which lie deep to the brachial fascia. It has a variable relationship with the basilic vein, but this structure is never transposed during brachioplasty. There is a greater danger to nerve injury when the dissection is conducted deeper than the Scarpa’s fascia, therefore dissection deep to the brachial fascia or harvest of the intermuscular septum is contraindicated. A layer of subcutaneous fat at least 1 cm thick should be left over the deep fascia to minimize injury to the sensory nerves in the arm. Placing the longitudinal incision slightly posterior to the bicipital groove decreases chances for injury to the nerve as well.

Answer 193

D) Full brachioplasty The most appropriate management for this condition is brachioplasty. Surgical management of the upper arm, particularly after massive weight loss, is dependent upon the ratio of fat and skin laxity. There are several classifications, but all address this ratio. Those with a great deal of skin laxity and little fat are best treated by direct excision (brachioplasty). Those patients who have little skin laxity (and good skin tone) and marked fat may benefit from liposuction alone. Those patients in the middle, with skin laxity and residual upper arm fat, are likely to benefit from a combination approach, either in a single or staged fashion. In this case, the patient demonstrates considerable skin laxity and has little extra fat, so a dermatolipectomy alone will address her deformity. A limited medial brachioplasty is useful for patients with skin laxity primarily in the proximal third of the arm and involves resection of a vertical ellipse of skin, leaving the scar in the apex of the axilla. The patient described here has skin laxity throughout the upper arm, which would not be adequately addressed with a medial brachioplasty. Liposuction followed by brachioplasty in a staged fashion will not improve her outcome and will only serve to increase the cumulative risks of two surgeries. Liposuction alone does not address the underlying issue of skin laxity. The patient’s age and her history of obesity/massive weight loss severely decrease the ability of her skin to retract after liposuction.

Answer 194

A) Contour irregularities The most common complication associated with liposuction of the arm is areas of overresection resulting in contour irregularities. Because such irregularities can be due to postoperative swelling, they should be treated conservatively for at least 6 months after surgery. Treatment may consist of fat grafting if contour abnormalities persist after 6 months. Early treatment may include lymphatic massage. Although hyperpigmentation is possible, it is more commonly seen in the medial thigh in association with ultrasound-assisted liposuction. Seromas are rare in the upper extremity. Injury to the ulnar nerve at the elbow is possible, but it has not been reported. Care should be taken to avoid the nerve in placement of the cannula. While lymphedema is possible, if liposuction of the arm is limited to the posterior aspect, where major lymphatic channels are avoided, it can be prevented. Transient postoperative swelling is expected.

Answer 195

A) I Abdominoplasty in combination with liposuction has been associated with a higher risk of complications. Combining both procedures has been reported to increase the risk of delayed healing, thrombotic emboli, fat emboli, skin necrosis, and fat necrosis. Increased complication rates are reported in patients with risk factors such as obesity, smoking, and diabetes mellitus. Direct undermining of the abdominal skin combined with liposuction can lead to vascular compromise of the overlying skin. The blood supply to the abdominal wall is divided into three zones: zone I, mid abdomen supplied by the deep inferior epigastric artery; zone II, lower abdomen supplied by the external iliac artery; and zone III, lateral abdomen and flanks supplied by the intercostal, subcostal, and lumbar arteries. Zone IV has not been described. Following abdominoplasty, elevation of the abdominal flap disrupts the blood supply from zones I and II, leaving the flap to be perfused by blood vessels from zone III. Liposuction with abdominoplasty of the central abdomen, zone I, is associated with the highest rate of skin necrosis. “Safe zones” include the flanks and upper lateral abdomen.

Answer 196

B) Fat embolism Fat embolization syndrome (FES) is clinically characterized by a triad of symptoms occurring within 24 to 72 hours following surgery or trauma: 1) alterations in mental status, 2) respiratory dysfunction, including hypoxemia or tachypnea, and 3) a petechial rash involving the anterior trunk, axillary, or head and neck regions. Common predisposing conditions include traumatic long bone and pelvic fractures, orthopedic procedures, liposuction, and soft-tissue injuries. Non-traumatic etiologies include pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, osteomyelitis, and alcoholic liver disease. Proposed mechanisms for fat embolism include 1) mechanical disruption—release of fat droplets from disrupted bone marrow or adipose tissue forced into torn venules in areas of trauma, or 2) biochemical—release of free fatty acids as chylomicrons induced by systemic changes from trauma or sepsis. Diagnosis of FES is primarily clinical. Major diagnostic criteria include respiratory distress, cerebral dysfunction, and petechial rash. Minor criteria include tachycardia, tachypnea, fever, hypoxemia, thrombocytopenia, and hypocalcemia. Treatment for FES is primarily supportive. Respiratory support should focus on maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation and arterial saturation. Mechanical ventilation may be necessary. Hemodynamic and fluid resuscitation may be required. Use of corticosteroids remains controversial. The triad of symptoms including the petechiae concentrated in the upper truncal region would be an unusual occurrence for an allergic medication reaction. Lidocaine toxicity occurs initially with perioral numbness, vertigo, and visual disturbances, and progresses to muscle twitching, unconsciousness, seizures, and finally to cardiorespiratory failure. Lidocaine toxicity would be earlier in onset and is not associated with a petechial rash. Although thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) may initially occur with petechiae, TTP is more commonly associated with headache, confusion, and digestive symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. Transient ischemic attack may occur with temporary loss of vision, hemiparesis, confusion, or paresthesia.

Answer 197

E) Ventilation/perfusion scanning The most appropriate first step in management is to obtain a ventilation/perfusion scan. The patient described presents with the clinical picture of a pulmonary embolus (PE). Normal chest X-ray study rules out an obvious pulmonary process like pneumonia, atelectasis, or pneumothorax. The right-sided strain pattern on electrocardiography points to a PE as well. Vitals are abnormal, but she is hemodynamically stable. CT angiography (CTA) would have been the investigation of choice; however, serum creatinine is abnormally high, which precludes giving her the high doses of contrast dye a CTA would require. Empirically starting her on anticoagulation is another management option, though one has to weigh the risk-benefit of full-anticoagulation therapy so soon after major surgery. However, subcutaneous enoxaparin therapy in a patient with renal insufficiency is not ideal. Instead, systemic heparin therapy would be the agent of choice because it is not dependent on renal excretion, has a much shorter half-life, and its therapy can easily be measured with activated partial thromboplastin time levels. Therefore, it can be titrated more reliably, and its anticoagulation effects can be shut off quickly if the need arises. A venous Doppler examination of the lower extremities will probably need to be done, but it is not the first step in management. Additionally, it does not diagnose a PE. An emergent cardiac catheterization is not indicated because this is not an acute myocardial ischemic event. A ventilation/perfusion scan is performed in situations where an angiogram (conventional or CTA) is not indicated or available. It is especially useful in patients with renal insufficiency because the perfusion portion does not utilize contrast that could negatively affect the kidneys, but rather uses a radioactive tracer. The ventilation/perfusion scan helps stratify the probability of a patient having a PE, and thus helps the clinician to choose the appropriate way to potentially treat the patient.

Answer 198

A) Evaluation at the emergency department This patient is likely suffering from a pulmonary embolism and requires emergent workup and treatment with anticoagulation. Although she was treated perioperatively with subcutaneous heparin, deep venous thrombosis (DVT) can still develop as well as a resultant pulmonary embolism (PE). In one survey of board-certified plastic surgeons, PE was found to be the leading cause of death following liposuction. In aesthetic plastic surgery patients, abdominoplasty patients appear to be at a higher risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) when compared to those undergoing other commonly performed elective procedures. Rates range from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 300 for standard abdominoplasty, and when combined with other procedures, the risk of VTE and death from PE increases significantly. Any possible symptoms that are suspicious for PE, even several weeks postoperatively, must be taken very seriously and treated urgently with immediate presentation to the closest emergency department for aggressive and urgent medical workup as well as imaging and laboratory studies to evaluate for DVT and/or PE. Venous thrombus formation occurs secondary to a triad of factors describes by Virchow: venous stasis, vascular injury, and hypercoagulability. During abdominoplasty, the combination of general anesthesia, supine positioning, and immobilization promotes venous stasis. In addition, decreased venous return prevents clearance of activated clotting factors, further leading to thrombus formation. The highest risk period for fatal postoperative PE occurs 3-7 days after surgery, with approximately 10% of symptomatic PE being fatal within 1 hour of first symptoms. The risk of symptomatic venous thromboembolism is highest within 2 weeks of surgery and remains elevated for 2 to 3 months. Two thirds of patients with a DVT may appear clinically silent making the need for thromboprophylaxis extremely important. Current strategies to reduce risk include proper patient positioning, early ambulation postoperatively, flexion of the patient’s knees 5 degrees, supplemented with mechanical (e.g., pneumatic compression boots) and/or pharmacological prophylaxis in most patients. The most common practice for pharmacological prophylaxis is to begin therapy preoperatively and continue treatment until 5 to 10 days after surgery. Some studies have even suggested a full month of postoperative treatment for those patients at a higher risk.

Answer 199

B) Medial antebrachial cutaneous When performing brachioplasty, injury to the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve can occur. This nerve runs along to the medial epicondyle and adjacent to the basilic vein. Maintaining superficial dissection at the ulnar aspect of the elbow and preserving the basilic vein is paramount in minimizing injury to the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Although theoretically possible, injury to the ulnar and median nerves has not been reported with brachioplasty. The axillary nerve and posterior interosseous nerve should not be in the field of dissection when performing a brachioplasty.

Answer 200

C) Reduction mammaplasty This patient suffers from pseudogynecomastia, also known as lipomastia. Reduction mammaplasty with repositioning the nipple at or above the inframammary fold, reduction of the size of the areola, removal of excess skin, and removal of excess fatty tissue will most appropriately correct this patient’s deformity. However, many insurance companies recognize this code as a gender-specific code for women. This patient’s concerns are primarily with appearance. Breast reduction should be performed as a cosmetic procedure. No good controlled studies show the benefit of radiofrequency in the treatment of gynecomastia or pseudogynecomastia. The safety and efficacy of phosphatidylcholine injections have yet to be established. Liposuction will not address the skin problem or correct the enlarged areolae. Mastectomy for gynecomastia is a surgical procedure for the removal of painful, periareolar glandular tissue usually in pubescent males and is sometimes covered by insurance.

Answer 201

D) Abdominoplasty with rectus plication In addition to a thorough medical history, careful analysis of the patient’s goals and evaluation of the anatomy is the basis for correctly selecting the optimum choice for aesthetic restoration of the abdomen after child bearing. This patient’s skin redundancy above and below the navel requires that panniculectomy incorporate downward tension for the portions superior to and inferior to the umbilicus. Miniabdominoplasty fails to include supraumbilical skin tensioning. Liposuction alone may actually worsen the degree of skin laxity by deflating fat compartments or disrupting musculocutaneous suspensory fasciae. It is unlikely that prosthetic material will be necessary to repair a diastasis when plication (folding adjacent fascial halves with sutures) suffices unless a concurrent hernia of significant proportions exists. Traditional abdominoplasty incorporates mobilization of the abdominal panniculus, addresses laxity above and below the navel, and may incorporate more recent techniques such as progressive tension sutures to ensure an optimum aesthetic result while minimizing the need for revision. Fleur-de-Lis abdominoplasty involves a vertical incision and is not indicated. Cryolipolysis is not effective in this level of skin laxity.

Answer 202

D) T-incision brachioplasty Traditional brachioplasty comprises a T-shaped scar along the length of the arm and the axilla. This patient has excess skin on her arm, which dictates the necessity for an excisional procedure. Further liposuction of any modality will exaggerate her presentation further, including Vaser liposuction, a form of ultrasound-assisted liposuction, and laser-assisted liposuction, both of which are reported to tighten skin through heating its undersurface. There is no evidence to support Thermage as an effective treatment for lax skin. Lipobrachioplasty is a technique which safely combines liposuction with excisional surgery, performing liposuction on the proposed area to be excised. In a thinned arm, potential risks of neuropathy and seroma that accompany liposuction are unnecessary in a patient with lax skin that requires excision to improve contour. Limited incision brachioplasty with excision limited to an ellipse in the axilla, with or without liposuction, provides very limited results with regard to improving overall arm contour, particularly with moderate-to-severe skin redundancy.

Answer 203

C) Lateral gluteal depression The key element to avoid postoperative deformities in liposuction is avoiding the zones of adherence. These are zones where the superficial fascial system sends elements through the deep compartment attaching to the investing fascia of the underlying musculature. These zones of adherence accentuate localized fat deposits between them. The lateral gluteal depression is just superior to the outer lateral thigh and attention to that zone is important when performing liposuction along the outer thigh area. The other zones are not related to the outer thigh, except the inferolateral iliotibial tract, which is distal to the area of concern.

Answer 204

B) Fat embolism A known risk of liposuction is fat embolism syndrome (FES), and clinical examination remains the gold standard for diagnosis. The three classic symptoms of FES are respiratory distress, decreased cerebral function, and petechial rash. This generally occurs within 48 hours postoperatively. With manual disruption of both fatty tissue and blood vessels that occurs with liposuction, microparticulate fat showers the lung, brain, kidney, and skin with emboli, leading to mechanical obstruction and/or a biochemical inflammatory reaction. Overall mortality from FES after liposuction is approximately 10 to 15%. Lidocaine at high concentrations can cause serious central nervous system disturbances, including anxiety, agitation, psychosis, seizures and/or coma, and cardiovascular toxicity, including arrhythmias and hypotension. Symptoms of toxicity include light-headedness, euphoria, digital paresthesia, restlessness, and drowsiness. Symptoms of objective toxicity include nausea, vomiting, tremors, blurred vision, tinnitus, confusion, excitement, psychosis, and muscular fasciculations. Seizures and cardiorespiratory depression occur typically when blood levels reach 8 to 12 mcg/mL. Above this level, subjects may become comatose, with respiratory arrest and cardiac asystole. A rash is not associated with lidocaine toxicity. The safe dose of lidocaine has been established as 35 mg/kg during liposuction, and some authors suggest using 55 mg/kg may be safe. Anaphylaxis from a drug allergy also does not cause a rash but can cause respiratory distress from laryngeal edema. Pulmonary edema is characterized by respiratory distress that does not respond to oxygen therapy. This can occur because of fluid overload or from physiologic issues related to extubation. Pulmonary embolism must be considered with respiratory distress but is not associated with rash and can occur at any time postoperatively.

Answer 205

E)Surgical site infection There is a significant and growing body of evidence showing that normal body temperature during surgery specifically reduces the likelihood of surgical site infections and reduces the risk of bleeding. For this patient with a long operative time and exposure of a significant amount of body surface area, she is at increased risk for hypothermia and surgical site infection. Fat necrosis is attributable to devascularization of fatty tissue. Seroma formation is attributable to inadequate drainage of the surgical wounds. The likelihood of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolus is reduced by the use of subcutaneous heparin, low-molecular-weight heparin, and/or sequential compression devices.

Answer 206

A) Abdominoplasty Abdominoplasty is the procedure associated most frequently with postoperative mortality from a pulmonary embolism in an ASC. The American Association for Accreditation of Ambulatory Surgery Facilities, Inc. (AAAASF) has collected statistics on morbidity and mortality for its accredited facilities. Mortality from office-based surgery is extremely rare. From 2001 to 2006, there were over 1 million outpatient procedures performed with 23 deaths. Pulmonary embolism was the cause in 13 of the 23 deaths. Twelve of the 13 pulmonary embolism deaths were associated with abdominoplasty alone or in conjunction with another procedure.

Answer 207

B) Between the internal oblique and the transverse abdominis The thoracolumbar nerves that innervate the anterior abdominal wall travel as multiple mixed segmental nerves that branch and communicate widely in the transverse abdominis plane (TAP), located between the internal oblique and transverse abdominis muscles. The TAP regional block provides abdominal wall analgesia by affecting the sensorial afferent nerves of T6 to L1 found in this plane. Local anesthetic injected into the TAP has been shown to decrease the amount of postoperative narcotic requirements in abdominal wall surgery.

Answer 208

E) Use of a superwet technique instead of tumescent In the tumescent technique of infiltration of wetting solution, the tissues are infiltrated with roughly a 3:1 ratio of wetting solution to lipoaspirate. This is generally done to effect, with the tissues becoming firmer once engorged with fluid. In large-volume liposuction (greater than 4 L), it is especially important to understand the possible side effects of the constituent parts of the wetting solution, including the volume of administration, the local anesthetic, and the epinephrine. In terms of lidocaine toxicity, there are various factors to take into consideration, including the level and rate of drug absorption, drug interactions, fluid management, prothrombogenic factors, and volume of the wetting solution and aspirate. According to the ASPS Safety Committee Advisory on Liposuction, two options are available to decrease the risk of lidocaine toxicity in large-volume liposuction cases: 1) decrease the concentration of lidocaine in the wetting solution; and 2) use smaller volumes of infiltrate by applying the superwet technique (1:1 ratio of infiltrate: lipoaspirate) rather than the tumescent technique. Furthermore, one can omit the lidocaine altogether from the infiltration solution. The pressure and rate of infusion of the wetting solution do not affect the rate of lidocaine absorption. Infiltration of all areas simultaneously will be counterproductive. The use of epinephrine in wetting solutions is critical because it causes vasoconstriction, which results in both improved hemostasis as well as delayed absorption of the anesthetic agent, which prolongs its effect, decreases the amount of anesthetic needed, and reduces the risk of lidocaine toxicity. Therefore, its removal from the wetting solution is not indicated. However, in large-volume liposuction cases, staged infiltration of multiple anatomical sites may provide a wider safety margin. The use of bupivacaine and prilocaine in wetting solutions has not been clinically studied or assessed. Bupivacaine should be used with caution if added to infiltrate solutions because of its slow elimination and reversal and its potential for severe side effects involving the cardiovascular, neurologic, and hematologic systems.

Answer 209

B) Contour deformity When performing suction lipoplasty of the upper arm, the medial portion around and below the area of the bicipital groove should be avoided. The fat layer in this area is very thin, and wrinkling and poor skin contraction may occur. The most common areas of liposuction of the upper arm include the posterior brachial and the lateral aspects. The treatment of the para-axillary region, the deltoid bulge, and the upper back were popularized in the 1980s and the 1990s and are still performed today.

Answer 210

B) Medial antebrachial cutaneous

Answer 211

D)Iron Following gastric bypass, many patients have poor nutrition that may adversely affect post-bariatric surgical outcomes. Advanced age, changes in body mass index, and presence of dumping syndrome may contribute to the patient’s overall nutritional status. Preoperative assessment is important in identifying patients with inadequate nutrition. Evaluation should include protein-calorie intake, serum protein measures, vitamin and mineral status, coagulation, liver function, and electrolytes. Iron deficiency is the most common abnormality found in post-gastric bypass patients. Despite iron supplementation, 50% of patients show evidence of low ferritin concentrations. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency is often detected. Deficiencies in calcium and folate are less common. Protein deficiency identified by hypoalbuminemia has been reported to be as high as 14% in patients following gastric bypass surgery.

Answer 212

D) Needle aspiration Seroma formation is the most frequent complication of abdominoplasty procedures. The occurrence rate quoted in the literature varies from 0.3 to 90%. The most common figure is 7 to 35%. The diagnosis of seroma can usually be made on physical examination. Ballottable swelling or fluid wave is both visible and palpable and represents the sine qua non of seroma. In this patient, a needle aspiration should be performed. It is not unusual for seroma to recur, and additional aspirations may be required on a weekly basis. The average seroma takes two to three aspirations to eradicate. If seroma is ignored, it can lead to a permanent condition that requires operative excision. Risk factors for increased seroma formation include BMI greater than or equal to 30, concomitant liposuction, large skin resections, and shear forces. Most plastic surgeons put their patients in compression garments postoperatively; however, studies have shown that garments do not prevent seromas. Diagnostic ultrasound is an unnecessary test when the patient has a ballottable mass. Doxycycline sclerosis is indicated when aspiration is unsuccessful or if the suction drains cannot be removed because of persistent high-volume output. Oral diuretics will not cure seroma.

Answer 213

B) Augmentation with gluteal artery perforator flap coverage Gluteal changes related to loss of volume, ptosis, and skin laxity following massive weight loss require aggressive surgical techniques to improve contour and augmentation. External radiofrequency (Thermage) does not address deflation and has shown conservative results with regard to skin tightening. It does not offer the degree of tightening that would adequately treat the massive weight-loss patient. The gluteal region in patients who have sustained massive weight loss following gastric bypass surgery is characterized by excessive skin and exaggerated fat loss. Lower body lift procedures remove excess skin and lift sagging buttock tissue, but they do not address deflation and may result in further gluteal flattening. Autologous gluteal augmentation flaps, such as those vascularized by the superior and inferior gluteal artery perforator arteries, can be transferred reliably during lower body lifts to add volume and projection to the buttocks. Fat grafting is the most prevalent form of gluteal augmentation with the greatest safety profile, currently surpassing gluteal prostheses. The greatest challenge in using autologous fat in a patient who has sustained massive weight loss is assessing whether the patient has adequate donor fat to overcome severe volume loss and skin laxity. The amount of donor fat needed to achieve a pleasing shape is much greater than it seems, ranging from 450 to 1100 mL per side, depending on patient size and gluteal dimension. The ideal candidate for autologous buttock augmentation is slightly overweight, but in good health. Implantation of gluteal prostheses is not often performed by plastic surgeons due to well-known risks that include wound dehiscence, extrusion, seroma, and infection. Furthermore, gluteal prostheses carry risks of rotation, capsular contracture, and displacement. Suction lipectomy would exacerbate volume deficiency and result in little to no skin tightening.

Answer 214

C) Superficial to the deep fascia traveling with the basilic vein The position of the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve (MABC) makes it vulnerable to injury during a brachioplasty. Understanding its course and relationship to other structures allows the surgeon to identify and protect it. The MABC is a sensory nerve. It is a terminal branch of the medial cord of the brachial plexus. It travels with the basilic vein medial to the biceps brachii muscle, and it pierces the fascia at the basilic hiatus proximal to the elbow. Injury to the MABC can cause areas of numbness of the median forearm, as well as painful neuromas. The MABC is best identified in the distal aspect of the brachioplasty incision with the basilic vein and protected during the dissection.

Answer 215

A)Disruption of the inframammary fold Although surgery remains the mainstay of treatment for gynecomastia in this country, results have been inconsistent, with reported dissatisfaction rates as high as 50%. Common aesthetic problems reported after surgery include unacceptable scarring and nipple and areolar deformities such as tethering and malposition. As a result, less invasive techniques have evolved and are now the mainstay of treatment for all but the most severe forms of gynecomastia. The use of ultrasound-assisted lipectomy has improved the outcomes in the treatment of all grades of gynecomastia. In the more severe grades, certain maneuvers will improve skin retraction and redraping and may thus eliminate the need for a subsequent procedure for skin excision. While fatty and fibrous tissue is best approached from a deeper subcutaneous plane, transition to a subdermal plane can allow for greater skin retraction. Moreover, disruption of the inframammary fold is essential in that it allows the skin to drape more naturally onto the abdomen, which is typical of a male breast. The use of wetting solutions is imperative with ultrasound-assisted lipectomy to avoid burns. Both superwet (1:1) and tumescent (3:1) techniques are acceptable. The power of the unit should generally not exceed 90% to avoid burns and dermal injuries. Peripheral feathering improves contour, providing a smoother transition to the outer border of the breast, but does not specifically address skin excess.

Answer 216

B) Augmentation with gluteal artery perforator flap coverage Gluteal changes related to loss of volume, ptosis, and skin laxity following massive weight loss require aggressive surgical techniques to improve contour and augmentation. External radiofrequency (Thermage) does not address deflation and has shown conservative results with regard to skin tightening. It does not offer the degree of tightening that would adequately treat the massive weight-loss patient. The gluteal region in patients who have sustained massive weight loss following gastric bypass surgery is characterized by excessive skin and exaggerated fat loss. Lower body lift procedures remove excess skin and lift sagging buttock tissue, but they do not address deflation and may result in further gluteal flattening. Autologous gluteal augmentation flaps, such as those vascularized by the superior and inferior gluteal artery perforator arteries, can be transferred reliably during lower body lifts to add volume and projection to the buttocks. Fat grafting is the most prevalent form of gluteal augmentation with the greatest safety profile, currently surpassing gluteal prostheses. The greatest challenge in using autologous fat in a patient who has sustained massive weight loss is assessing whether the patient has adequate donor fat to overcome severe volume loss and skin laxity. The amount of donor fat needed to achieve a pleasing shape is much greater than it seems, ranging from 450 to 1100 mL per side, depending on patient size and gluteal dimension. The ideal candidate for autologous buttock augmentation is slightly overweight, but in good health. Implantation of gluteal prostheses is not often performed by plastic surgeons due to well-known risks that include wound dehiscence, extrusion, seroma, and infection. Furthermore, gluteal prostheses carry risks of rotation, capsular contracture, and displacement. Suction lipectomy would exacerbate volume deficiency and result in little to no skin tightening.

Answer 217

C) Superficial to the deep fascia traveling with the basilic vein The position of the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve (MABC) makes it vulnerable to injury during a brachioplasty. Understanding its course and relationship to other structures allows the surgeon to identify and protect it. The MABC is a sensory nerve. It is a terminal branch of the medial cord of the brachial plexus. It travels with the basilic vein medial to the biceps brachii muscle, and it pierces the fascia at the basilic hiatus proximal to the elbow. Injury to the MABC can cause areas of numbness of the median forearm, as well as painful neuromas. The MABC is best identified in the distal aspect of the brachioplasty incision with the basilic vein and protected during the dissection.

Answer 218

D) Nerve block with lidocaine Although nerve injury is not the most common complication of abdominoplasty, it does occur in approximately 1% of patients undergoing cosmetic procedures and in 2 to 4% of patients who have similarly located Pfannenstiel incisions for obstetric and/or gynecologic procedures. Patients with symptoms of neuropathic pain after abdominoplasty are often referred for a series of diagnostic tests and consultations that may not be necessary, delaying definitive treatment. Patients experiencing neuropathic pain after abdominoplasty have most often sustained an injury to the lateral femoral cutaneous, iliohypogastric, or ilioinguinal nerve. The typical symptom is pain that can occur immediately or develop over time. Patients usually report a stabbing pain at the corner of the incision that may radiate to the pubic area and/or upper leg. Hyperextension or ?twisting? upper body movements can aggravate the pain. If abdominal muscle contraction intensifies the pain (Carnett sign), the pain is probably located in the abdominal wall. When nerve entrapment is suspected, a nerve block using a short-acting anesthetic injected into the trigger point is the next step in diagnosis. MRI and nerve conduction studies are rarely useful in this setting. If the patient reports relief with the injection, a second block with corticosteroids may provide long-term relief. If not, a well-targeted exploration with possible neurectomy and replantation may be indicated. While treatment with gabapentin (Neurontin) may provide temporary relief, its use is poorly tolerated in the long term and does not aid in the diagnosis or the definitive treatment of the problem.

Answer 219

C) Seroma Internal ultrasound-assisted lipoplasty (UAL) has been associated with an increased incidence of seroma formation, tissue damage, and thermal damage, as well as neurapraxia. With the use of a cannula or solid probe, ultrasound energy is transmitted to the fat layer, where it disrupts the fat cell. The ?liquefied? fat is then aspirated with suction. To prevent thermal injuries to the skin, infiltration of solution is mandatory, and the cannula or probe needs to be in constant motion. Although there are unique advantages and disadvantages of each lipoplasty technique, in experienced hands, excellent results can be achieved with any of the techniques, including suction-assisted lipectomy, power-assisted lipoplasty, UAL, and laser-assisted lipoplasty. Contour deformities are related to how the operator performs the technique rather than the technique itself. Infection rates are similar for the two procedures. Some studies have noted a decrease in both skin laxity and surgeon fatigue with UAL

Answer 220

A) Contour irregularities Contour irregularity is reported to occur in 20% of cases and is the most common complication in liposuction. Deep venous thrombosis is reported in less than 1% of patients. Cutaneous hyperpigmentation is reported in about 4% of patients. It is often related to friction burns or cutaneous compromise. Seromas are relatively uncommon and are believed to occur more frequently in patients with an increased body mass index. Finally, wound infections are rare following liposuction.

Answer 221

E) Wound dehiscence The most likely risk of a combination brachioplasty liposuction procedure is wound dehiscence. Wound dehiscence has been most commonly reported when liposuction is performed in conjunction with brachioplasty, and most commonly reported with the excisional technique alone. Dehiscence most often occurs in the axilla at the T point in traditional brachioplasty and in the axilla in the L-brachioplasty approach. Lymphedema also may occur after brachioplasty with or without liposuction and is also often temporary. There is no increased risk with liposuction. Lymphedema occurs because of scarring around the axillary lymph nodes. Cellulitis may also be associated with lymphatic obstruction or interruption in the arm. Numbness is a common complication following brachioplasty but is often temporary in nature. The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve is located within the field of surgery in the distal arm and may undergo traction injury or laceration. Thromboembolism is a rare occurrence after brachioplasty.

Answer 222

D) Lateral femoral cutaneous In several studies of complications of abdominoplasty, the most common nerve injury was to the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. Symptoms include anterior and lateral thigh burning, tingling, and/or numbness, all of which increase with standing, walking, or hip extension. Injury or entrapment of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve is also known as meralgia paresthetica. The genitofemoral nerve supplies the proximal portion of the thigh about the femoral triangle just lateral to the skin that is innervated by the ilioinguinal nerve. Nerve injury may result from hernia repair, but injury to this nerve is rare. The iliohypogastric nerve arises primarily from L1. The distribution of the cutaneous sensation of the iliohypogastric nerve is most commonly a small region just superior to the pubis. The iliohypogastric nerve is rarely injured in isolation. Symptoms include burning pain into the inguinal and suprapubic region. The ilioinguinal nerve arises from the fusion of the T12 and L1 nerve roots and pierces the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles. The nerve then supplies sensory branches to the pubic symphysis, the superior and medial aspect of the femoral triangle, and either the root of the penis and anterior scrotum in men or the mons pubis and labia majora in women. The nerve can be injured in abdominoplasty and other lower abdominal incisions. Symptoms include paresthesia of the skin along the inguinal ligament. The sensation may radiate to the lower abdomen. Pain may be localized to the medial groin, the labia majora or scrotum, and the inner thigh. Saphenous nerve symptoms of entrapment may include a deep aching sensation in the thigh, knee pain, and paresthesias in the cutaneous distribution of the nerve in the leg and foot.

Answer 223

D) Mesotherapy is not as effective as suction lipectomy, and it is not FDA-approved Mesotherapy involves the subcutaneous injection of medications as a nonsurgical alternative to suction lipectomy. Currently, mesotherapy is not an effective alternative to suction lipectomy and is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Although used initially in the treatment of psoriasis, chronic pain, and cellulite, mesotherapy has been advocated as an alternative to suction lipectomy. In mesotherapy, a variety of medications are injected into the mesoderm, the layer of fat and connective tissue below the skin. The most common medications utilized for lipolysis are phosphatidylcholine and isoproterenol. Currently, there are no clinical reports demonstrating the effectiveness of mesotherapy in body contouring.

Answer 224

D) Right subcostal scar The blood supply to the abdominal wall arises from the intercostal arteries, the superior and inferior superficial epigastric arteries, and the perforators from the deep superior epigastric arteries through the rectus abdominis muscle. In a traditional abdominoplasty with undermining of the superior flap up to the costal margin, the superficial inferior epigastric arteries and the perforators that arise from the rectus abdominis muscles are divided. This leaves the abdominal flap to survive on the flow from the intercostal vasculature. The subcostal scar from the prior open cholecystectomy is the most likely scar to pose a problem for wound healing in the patient described. This scar has divided the blood flow through the intercostal circulation; thus, flow inferior to the scar may be unreliable. The port scars are unlikely to cause problems with blood supply due to their small size. The Pfannenstiel, or low transverse, caesarean section scar will require either inclusion within the tissue to be removed or placement within the inferior incision in the old scar line if it is sufficiently low. Placement of the incision above the old scar may impair the blood flow between the two scars. However, even in the scenario described, it is less likely to cause a healing issue because of the transverse orientation of the scar and the lack of undermining between the new incision and old scar. The right lower quadrant (appendectomy) scar will not be an issue, as this will be removed with the tissue resection. The upper midline scar is not as likely to cause a wound healing issue, as circulation from the intercostal vessels from both sides should supply blood flow to the flap on each side of the midline.

Answer 225

D) 70% The most accurate estimate of infiltrate remaining in the body is 70%. Fluid management is critical in the treatment of suction lipectomy patients. Profound hemodynamic changes occur with increasing significance as the volume of infiltrate and aspirate increases. To avoid fluid overload leading to pulmonary edema, the plastic surgeon must realize that the majority of infiltrate will remain in the patient’s body and be absorbed over time. Fluid requirements should include maintenance fluid (the amount of fluid required to replace normal daily requirements plus deficits related to being nothing-by-mouth), aspirate removed, and fluid infiltrated (70% estimated to be intravascular). These calculations will be vastly different depending on the type of wetting solution used, such as dry technique (no additional infiltrate), wet technique (200 to 300 mL per site), super-wet technique (1 mL of infiltrate for every 1 mL of aspirate), or tumescent technique (3 mL of infiltrate for every 1 mL of aspirate).

Answer 226

B) Medial antebrachial cutaneous The demand for brachioplasty in the United States has increased as the number of patients undergoing bariatric surgery has increased. While brachioplasty is considered a safe and effective method of treating upper arm skin excess, the reported complication rate ranges from 25 to 40%. Most common complications of brachioplasty are considered minor and include seroma, poor scarring, edema, wound dehiscence, and underresection. The most common major complication is cutaneous nerve injury, which can occur in up to 5% of patients. Medial placement of the brachioplasty incision in the bicipital groove is preferred because the ultimate scar will be hidden when the arm is adducted. Medial placement of the incision may damage the cutaneous nerves that run in this area. Both the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve and the medial brachial cutaneous nerve arise from the medial cord of the brachial plexus. The medial brachial cutaneous nerve runs with the basilic vein and sends two to four branches to the skin 7 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle. Another three to five branches pierce the fascia to innervate the skin at about 15 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle. The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve runs in close proximity with the intramuscular septum and penetrates the fascia approximately 14 cm proximal to the medial epicondyle. At this point, the nerve runs superficially and is at risk for injury. While injuries to motor branches of the median and ulnar nerve have been reported, these branches run deep to the brachial fascia and are not injured unless the intramuscular septum is inadvertently punctured.

Answer 227

A) Dehiscence In appropriately selected patients, multiple body contouring procedures can be combined into a single stage if the surgery can be done in a timely fashion. Overall minor complication rates are higher; however, per procedure complication rates do not seem to increase if more procedures are performed in a single stage. The most common complication in patients undergoing combined procedures in a single stage is related to wound healing issues (approximately 15%). Seroma is the next most common complication (approximately 10%). Infection, hematoma, and pulmonary embolism occur at rates of less than 5%.

Answer 228

D) Superficial plane of suction One of the most common deformities of suction lipectomy is surface irregularity, which can have several causes. A large cannula will create a large furrow that may be visualized if the suction lipectomy is not performed evenly. Use of a single port may also lead to irregularities because the suctioning is done from only one angle. Superficial suctioning is also more prone to visible irregularities. The best way to avoid these deformities is to use small cannulas in the deep fat, with cross-tunneling from two sites, such that the tunnels are at right angles to each other. The power source would not cause surface irregularities. Lack of compression will cause prolonged edema, but not surface irregularities.