Liberalism Thinkers Flashcards
Who was John Locke?
KEY THINKER
Tied to Classical Liberalism
Placed particular emphasis on ‘natural rights’/’human rights’ - ‘right to life, liberty and property’
Highlighted the need for laws within society, ‘where this is no law, there is no freedom’
Advocated for private ownership - God-given
Ideally wished for a ‘state of nature’ with no state, yet recognises the weaknesses of that hope
Therefore, theorised the social contract - the government must be consented by the governed
Suggested that if a government was failing it’s people, those people could revolt - ‘Revolt is the right of the people’
Pushed for a limited government in his letter - ‘Concerning Toleration’ (1689) - no business in interfering in people’s views or attempting to convert views
Who was Mary Wollstonecraft?
KEY THINKER
Tied to Classical Liberalism
Wrote ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ (1792)
Argued that women were deserving of the same fundamental rights, opportunities + education as men
Argued for women to be viewed as human and treated equally due to both men + women being rational beings
Recognised that women were pushed into a ‘web of false expectations’ from infancy such as their sense of worth coming from their appearance - wanted to enable women to become rational + independent through ‘inner resources’ acquired - ‘elegance is inferior to virtue’
Argued that due to a lack of education for women - they were unable to defend their basic rights or even unaware of their inferior conditions in society - pushed for a wider access to education and basic female citizenship
Who was John Stuart Mill?
KEY THINKER
Tied to both Classical + Modern Liberalism
In ‘On Liberty’ (1859) - argued that the role of the government was to obey by the ‘Harm Principle’ - which meant the government could only interfere with human’s free will if it is to stop them from harming others
In ‘Considerations on Representatives Government’ (1861) - argued that a form of rep. gov that satisfies two key criteria (Promoting common good + effective use of institutions to do so) is the best form of state
Expressed concern over universal suffrage - saw the solution to be more votes towards the educated (Modern Libs disagree with this view)
Believed individuality was the foundation of a healthy society - saw de Tocqueville’s ‘tyranny of the majority’ as a serious issue
Distinguished higher pleasures (art, music, poetry + socialisation) + lower pleasures (food, drink, exercise + shelter) - saw higher pleasures as superior as humans would grow more attached to the superficial aspects of life over necessities
Who was John Rawls?
KEY THINKER
Tied to Modern Liberalism
Wrote ‘A Theory Of Justice’ (1970)
Theorised a social contract which reconciled liberal individualism with the principles of redistribution + social justice
In his book - ‘Justice as fairness’ - basic equal rights, equality of opportunity + promoting the interests of the least advantaged members of society
Identified two guiding principles in an ideal society:
-Equal rights + commitment to liberty (Rawls prioritised this)
-Distributive Justice (Equal accessibility to institutions for all members of society_
Argued the best way to achieve an ideal society was through institutions aligned with capitalism such as education, welfare + healthcare
Argued people operated behind a ‘veil of ignorance’ which meant individuals with disadvantages in society were disregarded - solution being the ‘Difference Principle’ - people will strive to limit the disadvantages as they themselves may one day be in that same position
Who was Betty Friedan?
KEY THINKER
Tied to Modern Liberalism
Wrote ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963)
Highlighted the ‘Problem with no name’ - a ‘sense of dissatisfaction’ between all women - ‘is this all?’
Argued women were unable to thrive, grow or develop due to their choices being predetermined by a pervasive paternalistic culture within society
Argued that women were just as capable as men in any work or career, yet were treated differently - sought to challenge attitudes that limited the freedom and individualism of half the population of the world
Who was Adam Smith? (to Liberalists)
Classical Liberalism’s views on economy largely derives from his work
Wrote ‘The Wealth of Nations’ (1776)
Argued that the economy works best when it is left alone by the government (laissez-faire capitalism)
Thought of the economy as a ‘free market’ - economic individualism will ultimately lead to general benefit as it is self-regulating in turn with individual’s actions in the economy
Theory of the ‘invisible hand’ over the market that operates the supply + demand depending on the people’s needs until it reaches an ‘equilibrium point’ and fluctuates accordingly to benefit the individuals
Who was John Maynard Keynes? (to Liberalists)
Modern Liberalism’s views on the economy largely derives from his work - ‘Keynesianism economics’
Wrote ‘The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money’ (1936)
Argued that state intervention in the economy was vital to achieve full employment and price stability
Supply and demand fluctuating is inevitable - yet tax policies allow the state to manage the economy through stimulation and hypothetically solve unemployment
This interventionism from the state highlights Modern Liberal’s ideas on developmental individualism and positive freedom for society
Who was Thomas Jefferson?
Wrote the American Declaration of Independence (1776)
Highlighted human’s ‘inalienable rights’ - as God has given humans natural worth and they cannot be taken away by anyone
Aligns with Locke’s arguments for ‘Foundational equality’ - only differing with ‘Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ (this emphasises his push for individualism over paternalism)
Who was Herbert Spencer?
Classical Liberalist
Wrote ‘The Man versus the State’ (1884)
Developed a defence of ‘laissez-faire’ policies - highlighting the ideas of Darwin’s natural selection
Argued for a social principle - Social Darwinism - ‘survival of the fittest’ within society
Inequalities in wealth, opportunities and political power was merely one’s own fault and government shouldn’t attempt to interfere to help them
Who was Voltaire?
Argued that toleration is the heart of Liberalism - ‘I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.’
Liberalism needed to be tolerant of differing views, no matter how contrasting they were to their beliefs
Who were Alexis de Tocqueville and Ortega y Gasset?
Thinkers who both highlighted the threat of majority rule in democracies
Tocqueville - ‘tyranny of the majority’ - if democracies ran on a 51% vote, minorities rights can be crushed in the name of ‘the people’
Gasset - ‘The Revolt of the Masses’ (1930) - the arrival of mass democracies led to the overthrow of civilized societies and moral order, paving the way for authoritarian rulers to appeal through populism
Who was Isaiah Berlin?
Wrote ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ (1958)
Distinguished between ‘negative’ freedom + ‘positive’ freedom
Negative freedom believed by Classical Liberalists - humans being left alone + free from state interference - ‘negative’ = absence of external constraints
Positive freedom believed by Modern Liberalists - personal fulfilment assisted by interference, development of human capabilities - ‘positive’ = identifying the true inner-self
Who was T.H. Green?
Modern Liberalist
Wrote ‘Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract’ (1861) + ‘Prolegomena to Ethics’ (1883)
Advocated for developmental individualism - labelled atomism as morally naïve
Highlighted social issues such as poverty, unemployment + illness were not individual issues but rather society’s issues as a whole
Argued the unrestrained pursuit of profit led to new injustices in poverty - therefore pushed positive freedom
Rejected Classic Liberal idea of self-seeking utility maximisers in favour for optimistic human nature through altruism + rationalism - individuals should help others as they would want to be helped in that same situation (‘Prolegomena to Ethics’)
Who was William Beveridge?
Modern Liberalist
Wrote ‘The Beveridge Report’ (1942)
Highlighted the injustice in society and an enabling state is needed to help individuals achieve their potential and freedom - ‘A starving man is not free’
Argued the government needs to protect citizens ‘from the cradle to the grave’
Set out to attack the ‘five giants’ of injustice:
- Want (caused by poverty)
- Ignorance (caused by lack of education)
- Squalor (caused by poor housing)
- Idleness (caused by inability to gain employment)
- Disease (caused by inadequate healthcare)
