Liberalism

Question 1

Human nature agreement

Answer 1

Broad level of agreement except over egotistical individualism
Both stress the of Indiv over the claims of any Soc group or collective body

Question 2

Classical libs views on HN

Answer 2

‘Egotistical individualism’ people are essentially self-seeking and self-reliant… minimises the importance of Soc… little more than collection of indep indivs

Question 3

Modern libs on HN

Answer 3

‘Developmental individualism’ plays down pursuit of self-interest, been used to justify sup for some state intervention in Soc to help disadvantaged

Question 4

Tolerance

Answer 4

Nat right every1 should have, should not be taken away against the will of the Indiv- orig this ref to diff relig beliefs… been extended to a wide range of practices

Question 5

Betty Friedan on tolerance

Answer 5

‘A girl should not expect special privileges because of her sex but neither should she adjust to prejudice and discrimination’

Question 6

Rationalism

Answer 6

Indivs should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interests w/out needing to be guided by external authorities such as the state
Classical libs argue that rational self-interest alone will promote economic prosperity and social harmony and that indivs should simply be left alone in a free market econ w/ lim gov to make their own choices
Mod libs ague that indivs should be supported so they have the capabilities to exercise their rationality effectively.

Question 7

JSM on HN

Answer 7

‘Over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’
Harm principle- indivs should be free to do anything except harm other indivs… followed a strictly limited view of the role of the gov- distinction between ‘self-regarding’ eg expression of personal beliefs and ‘other regarding’ like violent or disorderly conduct.

Question 8

Freedom

Answer 8

Both strands value freedom
Lib com to freedom extends to advocating for a pluralistic society. Diverse viewpoints, cultures etc are not only tolerated but celebrated.
Support for democracy
Support for codified constit so rights are entrenched… clear guidelines
Promote econ freedom… advocate for cap market econ that allow indivs to pursue their econ interests

Question 9

Negative freedom

Answer 9

Classical libs
Consists of freedom FROM (for ex) starving. E.g discrim laws… limited role of state

Question 10

Positive freedom

Answer 10

Consists of the ABILITY TO DO something e.g enabling those on a limited income to lead a more fulfilled and meaningful existence… thus larger role of the state
Enabling state
By the 19th century mod libs found neg freedom too restrictive- viewed Soc as more than a coll of indep atoms.
T.H Green argued that Soc was an organic whole in which ppl pursue the common good as well as their own interests
Both indivs + Soc in nature… from this concept of positive freedom … indivs should be able to control their own destiny’s to develop personal talents & achieve self-fulfilment- some state int = nec

Question 11

Classical liberals on society

Answer 11

‘Egotistical individualism’ when applied to Soc at large produced the idea ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ interests of minorities overridden by majority

Question 12

Equality

Answer 12

Emphasis on equality of opportunity libs accept differing outcomes bc ppl have diff abilities + potential. Ppl should be free to reach their potential.
Foundational equality implies a belief in formal equality- indivs should enjoy the same pol rights in so m ensured by equality b4 the law & equal voting rights in free + fair elec.
Indiv w/ diff talents should be rewarded diff… this inequality is beneficial for Soc bc it gives ppl the incentive to work hard + make the most of the abilities… until 20th century was not extended to women

Question 13

Wollstonecraft on equality

Answer 13

Argued that women were no less rational beings than men, entitled to same right to pursue a career and to own their own property
Women were ‘slaves in political and civil sense’
Wanted women to have formal equality to enjoy civil libs & a career w/ the ability to become econ indep from men- key to this was education, enable women to gain self-respect.
+ valued marriage as an institution… bc of biology women more likely to settle and have kids… respected either dec just wanted equal opportunity.. marriage must be a partnership of equals.. tyranny of the male must be resisted

Question 14

JSM on Soc + equality

Answer 14

Believed in complete equality of men + women
In favour of inheritiance tax… transmission of wealth over gens gave some advantages to others
Upheld the idea of tolerance and right to express a minority view.

Question 15

Civil rights

Answer 15

Supp full civil rights for women and minority groups
Obama supported the right of transgender students to use bathrooms of their choice at school.
Codified constit clear guidelines on rights

Question 16

Friedan on Soc/ equality

Answer 16

Conditioning rather than biology led women to be wives + homemakers rather than pursuing a career
Path set early w/ school & family and reinforced by Soc, cultural + relig infl
Being confined to a domestic role led to lack of fulfilment and happiness
Lib because wanted to make reform w/in existing structure of society rather than fundamentally transforming it
Continuation of Wollstonecraft- respects all paths
Indivs of equal worths and thus equal rights
Main concern was a creation of a level playing field to enable women to compete equally w/ men, not to be restricted to a narrow range of ‘acceptable’ options

Question 17

Social Darwinism

Answer 17

Classical libs bc indivs differ in ability, it is unavoidable that some will success and some will do well
Spencer coined ‘survival of the fittest’ those who do well are the ones who adapt most suc to their econ environment. Gov should not sup through welfare state

Question 18

The state

Answer 18

Libs view the state as nec to prevent disorder and chaos, also worried about its evil potential to infringe on individual liberties. As a result argue powers should be limited to
A too powerful state can stifle econ freedom and innovation by imposing excessive regs, taxes and controls.
Advocate for checks and balances and balances and a clear sep of power.

Question 19

Classic libs on state

Answer 19

Should act as a ‘night watchman’ guarding against external threats and internal disturbances… interfering as little as possible
The model of the state aligns w/ their view of neg freedom, emphasising that the primary function of gov should be the protection of indiv rights, including their life, liberty and property and that the most effective way to do so is to leave people unless it is necessary not to
Excessive gov into in the lives of indivs not only infringe upon their freedoms but can also lead to inefficiencies and stifle econ growth… the govs responsibilities are largely confined to prov some services that can’t be provided by the market

Question 20

Modern liberals on state

Answer 20

Modern libs support an enabling state.. infl by belief of positive freedom and developmental individualism, to promote freedom for all the state needs to step in at points and empower those who are disadvantaged, rather than simply leaving them alone
Rec that in a capitalist system, some indivs will be left behind and disadvantaged, incl those who are poor and discrim against.. they dont have the means and opp to truly exercise their freedom and individualism. State should play a proactive role in addressing the inequalities created by the market and sup those who are disadvantaged
State stepping in to provide education, healthcare, social security and other nec resources that enable people to overcome barriers and achiev their potential.
Key in infl pol in UK in 20th century e.g Beveridge report
Raise money through progressive taxation

Question 21

The state and freedom

Answer 21

Early libs objected to the way in which auth govs claimed a right to make decisions on behalf of ppl + attempted to reg their behaviour
Recog freedom can never be absolute… must be exercised under the law to stop interference w/ rights
Govs should not prev people from doing what they want unless their. Actions threaten others abilities to do the same for themselves

Question 22

Locke on freedom and state

Answer 22

‘ the end of law is not to abolish or restrain but to preserve + enlarge freedom… where there is no law there is no freedom’
Social contract. Argued ppl must freely give and renew their consent to be governed. Right to Reb if gov breaks contract + no rat person would submit to arbitrary rule

Question 23

Democracy

Answer 23

Support democracy… holds gov to account + extends pop participation & performs an ed function in Soc… do fear excessive dem… tyranny og the maj… support min rights or creature a culture of uniformity.

Question 24

Mill on plural voting/ state

Answer 24

Suggested giving more votes to the educated as a way of curbing uneducated masses- some degree of state intervention was justified to prevent the poor from enduring injustice… mod libs agree… sup state intervention to narrow Soc inequalities, true equality cannot be achieved w/out Soc justice… mod libs dont support JSM plural voting gives undue weight to the elite in Soc.
Neg freedom… indivs should not only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others not just themselves

Question 25

Mechanistic view of state

Answer 25

Machine created to serve indiv, parts are equal in worth & interchangeable. States should merely lay down conditions for orderly existence & leave other issues in the hands of priv indivs and businesses

Question 26

Self reliance

Answer 26

Key virtue… dependence on state is damaging as it undermines self-respect of the individual

Question 27

Why did mod libs believe in an enabling state

Answer 27

Bc of growing awareness of the inequality in the 19th century society… linked to low pay, unemployment, slum housing and poor working conds.
Argued that if indiv group are held back by their Soc circumstances, state has a responsibility to reduce or remove the disadvantages
Eg Asquiths gov b4 WW, old-age pensions, NI

Question 28

Rawls on state

Answer 28

Rejected utilitarianism didn’t take into account the range of desires and goals pursued by the indiv ppl
Every1 had an entitlement to certain basic rights and liberties
Imp to create a Soc where there is econ justice
Always a degree of inequality should aim to minimise
Ppl would agree on equal rights incl freedom of speech and right to assembly. This ‘difference principle’ allow ppl to enjoy as much freedom as possible provided it is not at the expense of others.

Question 29

Classical liberals on the economy

Answer 29

Laissez-faire capitalism- Adam Smith… belief that indiv freedom in econ pursuit lead to the most efficient allocation of resources and the greatest increase in Nat wealth… ‘invisible hand’ of the market and argued as a result that gov into should be limited… excessive intervention distorts market mechanism
Emphasised the part played by self-interest in driving econ growth
Free-market bc indiv lead, limited state int
Bath strands agree on cap

Question 30

Modern libs on econ

Answer 30

More conscious of the failings of the market, argued state-intervention is necessary to promote sustainable growth and to limit the injustice associated with large-scale unemployment and poverty
Keynesian econ… govt int = nec to deliver sustainable growth and keep unemployment low… prevent slump by managing the level of demand in the econ so that fully employment is maintained
Both strands agree on cap

Question 31

Rawls on econ

Answer 31

Favoured a prop owning democ… allowed the poorest to be econ indep.

Question 32

Rawls on the ‘veil of ignorance’

Answer 32

‘Veil of ignorance’ thought experiment that asks indivs to design a Soc w/out any knowledge of their own pos w/ it (‘original position’)….
Theorised that under the veil of ignorance, rat indivs would create a Soc that safeguards the lest well-off, ensuring a fair distribution of resources and OPPs
Sought to demonstrate that an enabling state and the pursuit of positive liberty was not only fair but entirely consistent with/ liberalism and its emphasis on rationality