liberalism Flashcards
1
Q
foundational equality
A
rights that humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away
also known as natural rights and inalienable rights
2
Q
formal equality
A
the idea that all individuals should have the same legal and political rights in society
3
Q
equality of opportunity
A
the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall
4
Q
social contract
A
the idea that the state/society is set up with an agreement from the people to respect the laws which serve to protect them
5
Q
meritocracy
A
a society organised on the belief that success is based on hard work and merit
6
Q
mechanistic society
A
idea that the state was create by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their favour
7
Q
limited government
A
role of the government is limited by checks and balances and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power
8
Q
egotistical individualism
A
idea the individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance
9
Q
developmental individualism
A
the idea that individual freedom is linked to humans flourishing
10
Q
Keynesianism
A
economic system which requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability
11
Q
laissez-faire capitalism
A
an economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced in exchange for profit. no or minimal government involvement
12
Q
negative freedom
A
the absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference from the private sphere
13
Q
positive freedom
A
the idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential
14
Q
who are the classical liberal key thinkers?
A
John locke
Mary Wollstonecraft
John stuart mill
15
Q
who are the modern liberal key thinkers?
A
John Rawls
Betty Friedan
16
Q
what are John Lockes main ideas?
A
social contract theory
limited government
17
Q
what is Lockes social contract theory?
A
the relationship between individuals, society and the state are based on voluntary agreements
18
Q
what’s is Locke’s theory of limited government?
A
government should be limited and must have the consent of the people
19
Q
what’s was Mary Wollstonecrafts main ideas?
A
reason
formal equality
20
Q
what did Wollstonecraft say about reason?
A
that woman are rational, reasonable, and independent beings, capable of reason and therefore should be able to enter the public sphere on equal grounds of men
21
Q
what is Wollstonecraft believe on formal equality?
A
to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career
22
Q
what were Mill’s main ideas?
A
harm principle
tolerance
23
Q
what was Mill’s harm principles?
A
rational beings should be free to make their own reasonable actions free from state interference unless is harmed other individuals
24
Q
what did Mill believe on tolerance?
A
just because a view is popular doesn’t make it correct
25
what were Rawls key ideas?
theory of justice
veil of ignorance
26
what was Rawls' theory of justice?
society must be just and guarantee each citizen a good quality of life that's worth living
27
what's was Rawls' veil of ignorance theory?
hypothetical scenario where individuals will agree on the type of society they want, without knowing what their position in that society will be
28
what was Betty Friedan's main ideas?
legal equality
equal opportunity
29
what did Freidan believe on legal equality?
women are as capable as men and oppressive laws and social views must be overturned
30
what did Freidan believe on equality of opportunity?
women are held back from achieving their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are 'acceptable' for women
31
what are the principles of liberalism?
individualism
freedom/liberty
state
rationalism
equality/social justice
liberal democracy
32
what type of individualism to classical believe in?
egotistical
33
what type of individualism do moderns believe in?
developmental
34
what do classical think that human nature is?
fixed, meaning humans have everything they need to flourish from birth
35
what do moderns think that human nature is?
not fixed, it can change
36
what is individualism?
the individuals interests are more important than collective/societal interests
37
who was an advocate for greater education?
Mill
38
why did Mill advocate for greater education?
in the hope of promoting developmental individualism, focussing on what individuals could become rather than what they had at that stage of their life
39
according to Mill, what would greater education protect?
liberal values of tolerance, reason and individualism
40
what is tolerance?
a willingness to respect values, customs, and beliefs with which one disagrees with
41
wha is tolerance one of?
natural rights
42
what did tolerance originally refer to?
religious beliefs
43
what has tolerance extended to?
wide range of views and practices i.e same sex relationships
44
what do all liberals believe individuals are capable of?
tolerance
45
What is the state of nature?
a hypothetical example of what life might have looked like before laws and government
46
what do liberals believe would have happened in the state of nature?
conflicts wold emerge as people pursued their own self-interests
47
what did Locke believe was needed to prevent clashes between people?
a mechanism like the state
48
where did Locke argue that people were able to exercise their natural rights?
the sate of nature
49
where do liberals believe tolerance should be extended to?
extended to intolerant acts unless it directly threatens other individuals
50
what did Freidan argue for greater toleration to?
genders and races
51
what did Freidan argue held many people back?
believed in western societies people were held back due t irate factors like gender or race
52
what did Freidan argue that the barriers to potential were?
illiberal attitudes
53
what did Friedan believed pushed problematic values onto women which reverted them from reaching her potential?
societies 'cultural channels' like schools, religious organisations, media, literature and cinema
54
what did Freidan argue that societies 'cultural channels' did?
culturally conditioned peoplemleayving women to believe that their live was determined by human nature and not their own rational abilities and enterprises
55
what did Feidan want to use to enact change for women?
the state
56
what did Friedan view the state as?
the institutions which could allow the constant improvement of peoples lives
57
what did modern liberals propose in regards to the state?
an enlarged enabling state
58
why did liberals want an enlarged enabling state?
to achieve positive freedoms for individuals
59
what was positive discrimination?
treating someone, who has been disadvantaged due to innate factors like gender, differently in order to produce positive outcomes.
60
what does positive discrimination look like?
in the US for example, this has been in the form of Affirmative Programmes which secures greater equality of opportunity
61
what is freedom?
must be exercised under the law and the government should not prevent people from doing what they choose unless their actions threaten others ability to do the same for themselves
62
what is liberals mechanistic view of human behaviour?
that saw people as driven by rational self-interest
63
what view on human nature do classical liberal reject?
a pessimistic view, they think all humans are capable of rational thought
64
what do classical believe each person should be given?
as much personal freedom as possible
65
what do liberals believe society is a collection of?
atomised self interested individuals
66
what do liberals believe that humans have which will lead to harmony?
their rationality
67
what principles do classical liberals support?
Mills harm principle
68
what would Mills harm principle mean for freedom?
there would be virtually no limits on freedom as long as their actions do not harm another individual
69
where were Mills views on freedom outlined?
his book 'On Liberty' which outlines his views on negative freedoms
70
where did Mill believe that freedom could exist?
in the absence of restraint from the state
71
where did Mill explain his harm principle?
On Liberty he said the actions of individuals should always be tolerated unless those actions would harm others
72
what did mill divide individuals actions into?
'self-regarding' and 'other-regarding'
73
what were 'other-regarding' actions?
actions which did directly affect others and therefore should not be tolerated by the state
74
what concept of freedom do classical support?
negative freedoms
75
why do classical support negative freedoms?
they believe in a minimalist state which acts merely as an enforcer of contracts
76
what did Locke famously say on negative freedom?
'no body can give more power than a man has himself'
77
what concept of freedom do modern liberals support?
positive freedom
78
why do modern liberals believe in positive freedoms?
they believe the state should enable he individual o help them achieve their potential regardless of factors restricting them
79
what did Rawls believe would be required through an enabling state?
significant redistribution of wealth, with far-reaching public spending and progressive taxation
80
what did Rawls argue would happen in behind the veil (veil of ignorance theory)?
that in the original position behind the veil, everyone would choose to create a more just society as they were unaware of the position in society they would end up in, this then justified positive freedoms for individuals from the state
81
what do modern and classical agree on human nature?
they both share an optimistic view on human nature
82
do modern liberals agree with the harm principle?
to some extent.
they agree with the sentiments behind it but disagree on what constitutes harm - incudes psychological and emotional harm
83
what do modern liberals support limits on that classical dont?
limits of speech and actions that may cause others harm, which is why modern liberals have been at the forefront of supporting hate speech legislation
84
what do modern liberals believe that negative freedom will amount to?
'freedom to starve'
85
what did modern liberals support which shows they want an enabling state with positive freedoms?
human rights act 1998 and equality act 2010
86
to liberals, what is the state?
its a threat to the individuals freedom and liberty and therefore there must always be a limited government
87
do liberals believe the state is necessary?
yes
88
why do liberals believe the state is necessary?
without it we would live in a unsafe, lawless conditions.
89
what do liberals believe power does?
corrupts human nature
90
what do liberals refer to the state as?
a necessary evil
91
how do liberals suggest the government be limited?
constitutionalism
government by consent
checks and balance
separation of the powers
92
what constitutions is built on classical liberal ideas?
US constitution
93
what did Locke argue the state should be based on?
the principle of 'government by consent'
94
what do classical believe that the state should not interfere with?
the free market - strong opposed to protectionism in the 19th century
95
what do classical liberals argue the state should act as?
a night watchman
96
what does it mean when the states acts as a 'night watchman'
the role of the state being to protect freedom of individuals through law
97
what did mill believe to be the role of the state?
- protect individuals
- protect property rights
- protect the nation from external threat
- not interfere with the economy
- be based on representative democracy rather than direct
98
who made the concept of negative freedom?
Isaiah Berlin
99
what do classical liberals emphasise through negative freedoms?
minimal state intervention and involvement
100
in regards to the economy, what do classical liberals believe the role of the state should be?
non-interventionist state in laissez faire economic policy
101
in regards to the economy, what sort of state do moderns advocate for?
a more interventionist state rooted in the principles of Keynesianism
102
what did Adam Smith say the market would do?
regulate itself so not needing state intervention
103
what did Adam Smith argue guides the market?
'invisible hand'
104
the governments of who promoted a rolling back of the state in the economy?
Thatcher and Reagan in the 1980s
105
what would Lockes minimal state entail?
a state restricted to maintaining social order, enforcing contracts and providing defence
106
what do classical liberals endorse the end f in regards to the economy?
tariffs and duties on imports that had domestic producers of goods
107
what are classical liberals inclines to see taxation as?
theft and sought to limit it where possible
108
what sort of state to modern liberals want?
enlarged enabling state
109
why do modern liberals want an enlarged enabling state?
they believe the state should provide positive freedoms
110
what do modern liberals argue that a limited state allows?
leaves room for capitalism to create huge inequalities preventing many from achieving their potential due to being held back by poverty and debt
111
do modern liberals support. welfare state?
yes
112
what roles did modern liberals add to the state?
- state should promote equality of opportunity
- organise welfare
- promote social justice
113
how do modern liberals think the state should provide equality of opportunity?
through education and reductions in the influence of inherited privilege
114
how did Rawls argue to heal divisions and inequality?
redistribution of wealth
115
how did Rawls justify the expansion of the state?
as it would help achieve individual liberty
116
how did modern liberals respond to collectivist policies?
many advocated for it
117
what did Hayek argue about increased state intervention and collectivist policies?
that it was too fare behind the principles of classical liberalism and began to blur the distinctions between classical liberalism and socialism
118
who did modern liberals face criticism from?
hayek (neo-liberal)
119
what did Rawls believe the only way to achieve equality of opportunity was?
through an enlarged enabling state
120
what do modern liberals agree that the regulating self-market is?
a myth
121
what is rationalism?
a belief in human reason. each individual should be free to exercise their own judgement about their own interests
122
what did Locke believe individuals are born as?
blank slate - tabula rasa
123
where do we gain knowledge, according to Locke?
our experiences
124
where should decisions come from?
logical conclusion based on evidence rather than faith and tradition
125
how do liberals want to solve disputes?
reasoned debate and discussion
126
what do liberals view war as?
a last resort
127
in the early 20th century, wha were liberals at the forefront of?
supporting the creation of the League of Nations, leading to the United Nations
128
do liberals support the European union?
yes, on the grounds that by surrounding some national sovereignty, member states derive more benefits through association with each other, such as access to large trading area
129
what do classical liberals believe will happen because we are all rational?
individuals will form a social contract with the state
130
what did Locke argue the purpose of a social contract was?
to uphold personal freedom, the government is created by the people and can be replaced if it fails to maintain the core values of liberty
131
what is the mechanistic theory?
stipulates that our behaviour is determined by the interactions between individuals
132
what did Locke argue was vital to society?
education, he believed the majority of an individual is formed by their education
133
what do modern liberals disagree with classical and instead argue?
they believe humans are capable of higher and lower pleasures
134
modern liberals believe humans are rational, what else does this include for them?
empathy
135
what do liberals place an emphasis on in terms of equality and social justice?
equality of opportunity
136
why do liberals accept different outcomes?
people have different abilities and potential which will cause different outcomes
137
what do classical believe all individuals should be afforded as they are all born equal?
the same legal and political rights, known as formal equality
138
what do classicals believe social inequality is for society?
beneficial for society as it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their society
139
to classical liberals, what is a good society?
meritocracy
140
Who was William Gladstone?
British Liberal prime minister in 1875
141
what did William Gladstone introduce?
competitive examinations for entry into civil service, ending the influence of aristocratic connections
142
do classical liberals support full civil rights for everyone?
no - many didn't afford the same rights and equality to women until Wollstonecraft suggested that women were no less rational
143
what did modern liberals disagree with on Mill and his ideas of negative liberty?
argued that it wasn't substantial enough for individuals to fulfil their potential
144
what do modern liberals argue that liberty must be?
positive if social justice was to be achieved to combat negative socio-economic factors
145
what did Rawls acknowledge about inequality of outcome?
that it was inevitable side effect of allowing all individuals to exercise their freedom
146
what is liberal democracy?
combination of the rule of the people, focus of individual rights and liberty. constitutionalism
147
what do classical want the state to protect as part of a liberal democracy?
negative freedoms
148
what do classical see and the only thing limiting individuals?
the state as in the state of nature individuals were free from restraint
149
where do classical liberals stop short of arguing the state should help?
those who are disadvantaged
150
what did Thomas Jefferson say about an enlarged government?
'when government grows, liberty withers'
151
how would classical promote a liberal democracy?
through constitutionalism, codification, separation of the powers, and clear checks and balances
152
why were classical concerned with the expansion of rights under a growing state?
they thought it had the potential to threaten natural rights like property
153
what do modern liberals advocate for instead of representative government?
full democracy
154
what view do all liberals take on human nature?
a positive view
155
what do all liberals view individuals as having?
equal moral worth and unique abilities
156
what do all liberals agree that humans are entitles do?
natural rights, and these shouldn't be given to them by the government but everyone is entitled to them on the basis that they are human
157
who's writing prominently shows liberals positive views on human nature?
Locke and Mill
158
where do liberals disagree on individualism? (Human nature)
classical believe in egotistical
modern believe in developmental
159
where do liberals disagree on rationalism?
classical believe in utilitarianism
modern believe in higher and lower pleasures
160
where do liberals disagree on tolerance?
classical believe in Mills harm principles
moderns do not believe this is enough
161
what do all liberals believe about society?
that the individuals is more important than society as a whole
162
do all liberals believe in foundational equality?
yes
163
what do liberals think on capitalism?
all liberals believe in it and acknowledge the benefits it can have for the individualw
164
what do liberals argue that capitalism is necessary for?
for the individuals to create an identity, through owning private property
165
where do liberals disagree on what capitalism should look like?
classical want a free market with no state intervention
moderns want a keynesian economy
166
if capitalism is left unchecked, what do modern liberals think this will cause?
more inequality and restricting individuals
167
what did Keynes argue the state must do to the economy?
must steer the economy, manage demand to ensure full employment
