Lesson 8: Logical Fallacies Flashcards
The presentation of reasons for a particular claim. It is composed of a premise.
Argument
The truth of the premise is supposed to prove that the validity of the conclusion is certain
Deductive Argument
The premise’s truth is supposed to prove that the truth of the conclusion is probably not false
Inductive Argument
These are statements that express your reasons. This must be arranged in an appropriate way to support your conclusions.
Premise
These are errors in reasoning or flawed arguments that lead to incorrect conclusions. They can be intentional or unintentional and can be found in various forms of communication.
Fallacies
It is the process of thinking about something in a logical way to form a judgment. It involves drawing conclusions based on evidence and arguments.
Reasoning
It is a logical process that moves from specific observations to general conclusions. It is often described as bottom-up logic. Conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning are probable, but not definitive
Inductive Reasoning
It is a logical process that moves from general principles to specific conclusions. It is often described as top-down logic. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true
Deductive Reasoning
It refers to a tendency, inclination, or prejudice toward or against something. It’s a preconceived notion or belief that can influence judgment, decision-making, and behavior.
Bias
Attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.
Ad hominem
Using threat of force or an undesirable even to advance an argument
Appeal to force
Using emotion such as pity or sympathy
Appeal to Emotion
The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it
Appeal to the popular
The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time
Appeal to traditon
Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also known as circular argument
Begging the question
Assuming “cause-and-effect” relationship between unrelated events
Cause-and-Effect
These fallacies are errors in reasoning due solely to an incorrect form or structure of argument
Formal
These fallacies are also known as material fallacies; these are errors in reasoning solely due to an anomaly or defect in the content
Informal
TYPE OF FALLACY
Errors in reasoning brought about by the occurrence of ambiguous terms whose meanings are confused in an argument.
Fallacies of Ambiguity
TYPE OF FALLACY
Errors in reasoning brought about by the irrelevance of the premise or premises in the conclusion of an argument.
Fallacies of Relevance
TYPE OF FALLACY
Error in reasoning is brought by the recurrence of complex or loaded expressions whose assumptions are questionable or have not yet been proven to be true.
Fallacies of Presumptions
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
Happens when a term or phrase employed in an argument has several meanings, and the view alternates between these meanings to provide the impression of coherence or support.
Equivocation
“The laws should be respected and obeyed. The law of gravity is a law. Therefore, the law of gravity should be respected and obeyed.”
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
When a person believes that what is true for the entire group or thing also holds true for each of its component pieces.
Division
“The soccer team is the best in the league. Therefore, each player on the team must be the best player in the league”
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
Happens when someone automatically thinks that what holds for one component must also have for the entire group or entity.
Composition
“Every part of the machine is light in weight, therefore the machine is light in weight.”
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
It uses the lack of evidence supporting one position to argue for the opposing position.
ARGUMENT FROM IGNORANCE
“No one has proven that aliens don’t exist, so they must exist.“
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Happens when a person appeals to a figure of authority or an expert who does not have the necessary knowledge or credibility about the issue at hand.
Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
“We should vote for the candidate whom our favorite basketball player endorses”
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Attacks happen when a person reacts to an argument by criticizing the personality traits or character of the person presenting the idea rather than addressing the argument’s main points.
Appeal to the Person (Ad Hominem)
“You shouldn’t believe in climate change because the scientist advocating for it is overweight”
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Using emotional appeals to support an argument rather than relying on logic or facts, which frequently includes generating compassion or pity
Appeal to Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
“This man certainly deserves a promotion, for he can hardly feed his starving family”
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Happens when someone asserts that something is real or correct just because most people agree with it or find it popular.
Appeal to the Popular Will (Ad Populum)
“We should drink this brand of beer, for it is the regular drink of successful men after a hard day’s work.”
FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE
Depending on force or threats rather than reason or evidence to persuade someone to adopt a claim or opinion
Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum)
“If you don’t agree with my political views, I’ll make sure you lose your job.”
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
Happens when a question is worded in a way that presumes a claim that hasn’t been established or accepted, making it challenging for the reply to provide an answer without doing so.
Complex Question
A lawyer who wants to establish that person A is beating his child asks this question: “Have you stopped beating your child?”
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
Committed when it is considered that just because one event occurs after another, it must be the first event’s responsibility
False Cause (Post Hoc)
“Edgar Allan Poe’s literary genius must have been caused by drinking liquor, for it is said that before he would first drink some liquor.”
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
Arises when the premises implicitly presuppose the conclusion of an argument. It’s a circular argument in which there is no fresh information provided and the thinking repeats itself.
Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning)
“The soul is immortal, for it never dies.”
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
Happens when a general rule is used in a particular situation when it is either unsuitable or makes no sense.
Accidental Fallacy (Accidentum)
“Speed limits are necessary for public safety. Therefore, we should apply a 55 mph speed limit to all ambulances.”
FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION
When a judgment is reached based on insufficient or biased evidence. It entails drawing sweeping conclusions from a modest or unrepresentative sample.
Hasty Generalization
“While running, Mario had a heart attack. Therefore, running is bad for the heart.”
