Lesson 6 - Theories of Planning Practice

Question 1

Bounded Rationality

Answer 1

Herbert Simon
Accepts that the human mind is limited in its ability to solve problems. We instead choose alternatives that are good enough (satisficing). Simon argues that the rational “economic man” should be replaced by the “administrative man.” Administrative men satisfice because they do not have the means to maximize their decisions.

Question 2

Wicked Problem

Answer 2

Criticism of rational planning. Not one root cause and no one alternative could eliminate the problem. E.g. homelessness. Rational planning can only work when the problem can be easily defined and there can be a best solution.

Question 3

Rational Planning

Answer 3

Set Goals
Determine Alternatives
Evaluate the Alternatives
Choose an Alternative
Implement the Alternative
Evaluate
Pure rationality assumes that a planner has perfect knowledge of all of the factors in a given situation. A planner is able to evaluate all alternatives and is not constrained by limits of time and money.

Question 4

Rational Planning’s Legacy

Answer 4

Rational planning was the dominant planning theory through the 1950s. While this model has been discredited, it still remains a theory that is widely practiced. Rational planning can still be seen in use in all areas of the planning practice, but transportation planning is the one area in which rational planning persists.

Question 5

Incremental Planning

Answer 5

In 1959, Charles Lindblom published the article “The Science of Muddling Through”, which first introduces the concept of incrementalism. Lindblom argues that people make their plans and decisions in an incremental manner. He argues that people accomplish goals through a series of successive, limited comparisons.

Planning has to be piecemeal, incremental, opportunistic, and pragmatic. He argues that planning in the real world is not rational and comprehensive, but is instead disjointed and incremental.

An example in many communities is the zoning ordinance. Planning departments rarely conduct a complete overhaul of the zoning ordinance; instead the zoning ordinance is tweaked to assist in achieving the goals of the comprehensive plan.

Question 6

Mixed Scanning

Answer 6

Amitai Etzioni introduced the concept of mixed scanning as a compromise between the rational and incremental planning theories. Mixed scanning views planning decisions at two levels: the big picture and the small picture.

Etzioni argues that fundamental policy-shaping decisions should be based on a more careful rational analysis of alternatives. Implementation decisions should use an incremental approach.

Mixed scanning improved upon incrementalism by recognizing the difference between policy-changing decisions and implementation decisions. As an example, a comprehensive plan would be created using the rational planning approach, while the implementation of the plan would use an incremental approach.

Mixed scanning assumes that there is a centralized decision-making process. As with the rational and incremental approaches, it does not identify who is involved in the process or whose values are used.

Question 7

Advocacy Planning

Answer 7

1960’s, Paul Davidoff
Davidoff argued that planners should represent special interest groups rather than acting for the good of the whole community.

Advocacy planning shifted for whom the planner plans, but it did not change what the planner does. The planner would still utilize rational and incremental approaches to planning.

Question 8

Equity Planning

Answer 8

1970’s, Norman Krumholz

Krumholz adopted equity planning in Cleveland, during the 1970s and, as a result, helped make the needs of its low-income groups the highest priority. Krumholz’s view on equity planning is that planners should work to redistribute power, resources, or participation away from the elite and toward the poor and working-class residents of the community.

The concept is planning for the people, by the people. Increased emphasis is given to the process of personal and organizational development, not to specific community objectives. Plans are evaluated on improvements to the quality of life, not the delivery of services.

Question 9

Transactive Planning

Answer 9

1973, John Friedmann, Retracking America: A Theory of Transactive Planning
Developed as a way to get the public involved in the planning process.

Mutual learning: the planner shares technical knowledge, while the citizen provide community knowledge.

Question 10

Radical Planning

Answer 10

Takes the power away from the government and gives it to the people. In this process, citizens get together and develop their own plans.

Not possible to implement as theorized. We do not have a governmental structure that would allow neighborhoods or individual groups to develop and implement their own plans.

Has been partially implemented in public housing complexes, where residents propose policy changes.

Question 11

Communicative Planning

Answer 11

Currently the theory of choice among planning practitioners.

Recognizes that planning operates within the realm of politics, and that it contains a variety of stakeholder interests. The communicative approach tries to use a rational model as a basis for bringing mutual understanding among all stakeholders. Planners can provide the stakeholders with information and bring people together to discuss the issues.

Planner acts as a consensus builder and facilitator among stakeholders.