Lesson 4 - The Egyptian /Ottoman Wars Flashcards

1
Q

What did Muhammad Ali want in compensation for assisting the Ottoman Empire in the war against Greece and having vast losses at Navarino and in Morea?

A

Syria

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2
Q

What did the Sultan offer Muhammad Ali?

A

Crete

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3
Q

Why did Muhammad Ali refuse this?

A

Crete was in a permanent state of revolt and it would be expensive to rule this.

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4
Q

What else did Muhammad Ali refuse to do?

A

Muhammad Ali refused to send troops he had withdrawn from Morea in Oct. 1828 to help Ottoman army counter Russian offensive.

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5
Q

On what pretext did Muhammad Ali take Syria?

A

Using as pretexts unwillingness of authorities in Syria to send back to
Egypt 6,000 draft evaders, and refusal of Wali of Acre to make payment towards cost Egyptian expedition to Morea, land and sea forces.

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6
Q

Was it Muhammad Ali himself who led his troops into Syria?

A

No, it was Muhammad Ali’s son, Ibrahim Pasha invaded Syria in Oct. 1831.

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7
Q

What progress did the Egyptian army make?

A

Egyptian troops progressed rapidly, taking Gaza, Jaffa, Jerusalem and Haifa. Acre fell in May 1832 after six-month siege. Then, they took Aleppo, Homs, Beirut, Sidon, Tripoli, and finally Damascus in mid-June 1832.

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8
Q

Was the reaction of the Ottoman Empire quick?

A

No, Reaction of Ottomans was slow. It was only in March 1832 that Mahmud officially declared Muhammad Ali and his son rebels and ordered Ottoman army to launch campaign against
them. However, in July 1832, modern Egyptian army, in alliance with local Arab leaders, inflicted two severe defeats to Ottomans at Homs and Belen.

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9
Q

Why did the Ottoman Empire agree to negotiate with Muhammad Ali?

A

Mahmud was unwilling to settle for questions of prestige, but also because he believed he could obtain support of Great Powers, especially Britain.

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10
Q

Why did Britain not assist?

A

Yet, in London, even if Stratford Canning, the former British ambassador to Constantinople, and Foreign Secretary Palmerston were advocating intervention in order to prevent the Sultan from turning towards Russia, Cabinet was more preoccupied with elections
at home and events in Belgium and Portugal.

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11
Q

Why did Austria not assist?

A

The Sultan also approached Austria but Vienna
was aligned with Russia, who was only waiting for situation to deteriorate further in order to increase her influence in Ottoman Empire.

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12
Q

With further advances from the Egyptian army who did the Ottoman Empire turn to?

A

When news of Ottoman defeat at Konya reached Russia, Tsar Nicholas I decided to do something to prevent emergence of new powerful state in eastern Mediterranean that could
counter more effectively than Ottomans Russian ambitions in region. Since neither British nor French offered any assistance, Mahmud turned to Russia: on 25 Dec. 1832, Russian military mission arrived in Constantinople to prepare arrival of Russian troops.

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13
Q

Why did London and Paris sent envoys to Cairo?

A

To try and persuade the Ottoman Empire to give Syria to Muhammad Ali. at same time, they threatened Muhammad Ali with blockade and end of French military assistance (Egyptian army was being trained by French mission.

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14
Q

What threat did Muhammad Ali make to the Sultan?

A

To take Constantinople, if the Sultan didn’t agree to give him Syria and Cilicia.

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15
Q

Why did the Sultan agree to the demands?

A

Because Russian armies could not arrive in time to defend the Ottoman Empire.

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16
Q

What agreements were brought by the Convention of Kütahya?

A

1) Muhammad Ali was confirmed as governor of Egypt and Crete and gained governorship of Syria;

2) Ibrahim Pasha was confirmed as sheik of Mecca and governor of Jeddah, and gained right to collect taxes in province of Adana (ie Cilicia).

17
Q

What was the Ottoman/Russian Treaty? Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi

A

Fearing that lifting of Egyptian threat reduced Russia’s leverage on Sultan, Tsar sent diplomat Prince Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov to negotiate with Sultan Ottoman-Russian Treaty.

Signed on 8 July 1833 at Russian military camp of Hünkâr İskelesi, on eastern bank of Bosphorus. Under treaty,
◦ Treaty of Adrianople, signed in 1829 was confirmed;
◦ each party agreed to help other if its territories were attacked during following eight years.

18
Q

What was the secret article?

A

However, in secret article, Russians repudiated Ottoman help, except for promise by Sultan to close Straits to foreign vessels in time of war. Meant that British, French or any other fleet would not be able to attack Russian Black Sea coast.

19
Q

What was the reaction of Britain and France to the treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi?

A

It generated a wave of Russophobia, with both Britain
and France determined to defend integrity of Ottoman Empire to keep Russians out. Implicitly, it also meant that London and Paris would also not hesitate to oppose any attempt by Muhammad Ali or others to undermine position of Sultan as that might provide
opportunity for Russia to pursue her expansionist ambitions.

20
Q

When was the second Egyptian-Ottoman war?

21
Q

Why did the second Egyptian-Ottoman war start?

A

The Kutahya convention brought further humiliation to the sultan and both sides prepared for more military conflict.

22
Q

What happened at the Battle of Nezib on 24th June?

A

The Ottoman’s had a humiliating defeat losing most of their men.

23
Q

How did Mahmud die?

A

Of tuberculosis

24
Q

What new tactic did the new sultan, Abdulmejid I take?

A

The new Sultan opted to carry on with offensive against Muhammad Ali but this time relied on the Ottoman navy to attack Egypt directly and cut off Egyptian troops based in Syria from their homeland.

25
Q

What strange twist took place then?

A

However, shortly after receiving orders to sail south towards Egypt, the Grand Admiral of the Ottoman fleet surrendered all his vessels to Muhammad Ali. Reason: he feared that Sultan would try to enlist support of Russia against Egypt, and that given superiority of Russian
army and navy, it was highly likely that any joint force would operate under Russian command. In other words, Muslim sailors and soldiers would have been acting on orders of Christians in war against other Muslims, that would ultimately serve Russian interests. For
Grand Admiral, this was unacceptable.

26
Q

What did the sultan then offer Muhammad Ali?

A

Heredity possession of Egypt.

27
Q

Was Muhammad Ali happy with this?

A

No, he demanded Syria and Adana too.

28
Q

Why were Britain, France, Austria and Prussia alarmed?

A

They were very worried that Russia would intervene which would significantly upset the balance of power.

29
Q

What did these powers offer?

A

To mediate in the crisis.

30
Q

Why did the Russians join in this mediation?

A

Russia realised that the status quo between the Sultan and the Governor of Egypt was the best way to preserve her influence in Ottoman affairs.

31
Q

How were Britain and France not united?

A

The British wanted to strengthen Ottoman Empire because that offered best guarantee of safety for route to India;

The French backed Muhammad Ali because of military links and growing economic links with Egypt.

32
Q

What was the London agreement drawn up with the Ottoman Empire by Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia [but not France] on 12 July 1840?

A

they promised to support Sultan against Egypt in return for his agreement to close the Straits to warships in war and peace;
They warned Muhammad Ali that:

▪ if he accepted within 10 days, he would keep hereditary rule over Egypt and life rule of southern Syria;

▪ if he accepted after 10 days, then he would only keep Egypt;
▪ if he dragged his feet for too long, he would have to submit to Sultan and would onlybecome Ottoman governor of Egypt, without hereditary rights - which meant that the autonomy of Egypt would come to end.

33
Q

Did Muhammad Ali give an answer? What happened next?

A

In absence of answer from Muhammad Ali, in early Sept. 1840, the British and Austrian fleets blockaded and bombarded harbours on Levant coast while expeditionary force defeated the Egyptian army led by Ibrahim Pasha.
* By end Oct. 1840, defeated, Muhammad Ali was forced to
◦ agree to withdraw all his forces from Syria;
◦ give up his claims over Syria as well as Crete and Arabian peninsula;
◦ accept Sultan as suzerain once again.
* In return, he kept his position as Governor of Egypt.

34
Q

What was the London Straits Convention of 13 July 1841?

A

Under it, the Sultan agreed to close the Straits to all warships, except to those of his allies in wartime.

35
Q

What was the outcome of the London Straits convention?

A

The Russian Black Sea coast was protected from possible attack by foreign vessels;

But also the Russia Black Sea fleet could no longer sail into Mediterranean.

De facto, it also reduced drastically Russian influence in Ottoman affairs. The London Straits Convention was a mild defeat for Russia, but it was important diplomatic victory for Palmerston, who had brought an end to the Russian threat on Mediterranean sea route
to India, always a major source of concern for Britain.