Lesson 2: From the Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte to the Napoleonic Wars - also includes the Serbian revolution

Question 1

When did the French army led by Napoleon Bonaparte land in Alexandria, Egypt?

Answer 1

July 1798

Question 2

When had the French occupation of Egypt first been envisaged?

Answer 2

1770

Question 3

What actions had taken place in relation to Egypt before 1798

Answer 3

1) In 1777, French mission had travelled to Egypt with view to prepare opening of possible route from France to India via Suez isthmus and Red Sea;

2) During Russo-Turkish War of 1787-92, French had suggested they should get Egypt, as well as Crete and Cyprus;

3) In 1795, within context of War of the First Coalition (1792-97), France tried to negotiate with Mamluk ruler of Egypt right of passage. This would have enable French expeditionary corps to reach India in 60 days, instead of up to 6 months via Cape route;

Question 4

What were the aims of the 1798 ‘invasion’?

Answer 4

1) To defend French commercial interests;

2) From Egypt to carry on towards India, where it would join forces with Tipu Sultan to force British out of India;

3) To carry out scientific work. Thus, force included 167 scholars, archaeologists,linguists, cartographers, etc. For some, their presence was used to justify the real purposes of expedition. For others though, it was in line with spirit of Enlightenment.

Question 5

Did Bonaparte encounter much opposition?

Answer 5

No

Question 6

Why was the battle of the Pyramids significant?

Answer 6

Heavy defeat of the Mamluks and allowed France to take Cairo

Question 7

Why was the loss of Egypt a major blow to the Ottoman Empire?

Answer 7

1) Egypt was jewel of empire;
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2) Egypt was lost rapidly, virtually without resistance. This pointed to huge gap between European and Ottoman military;

3) after recent losses to Russia and Austria in Crimea and Balkans, this was yet anotherfailure of Porte to preserve the integrity of empire;

4) France and the Ottoman Empire had long been allies. The invasion of Egypt brought and end to that alliance and instead led Sultan Selim III to move closer to France’s enemies: Britain and
Russia.

Question 8

Had the French fully crushed the Mamluks?

Answer 8

No, they had moved to Upper Egypt from where they inflicted Gorilla style attacks

Question 9

How did France try to justify the invasion to the Ottoman Empire?

Answer 9

They were just trying to bring down the Mamluks and reinstate the rightful ruler - Sultan Selim III

Question 10

Did the Sultan believe this and how did the Empire react?

Answer 10

No, he didn’t believe this and he reacted by declaring war on France and
mobilised troops in provinces of Aleppo and Damascus.

At same time, Selim arrested
members of pro-French faction in Constantinople and confiscated French commercialproperties across empire.

Question 11

What did Britain do in relation to the French invasion?

Answer 11

1) British sent squadron round Africa to block Red Sea in order to cut sea route to India toFrench;

2) On 1-3 Aug. 1798, British fleet under command of Horatio Nelson sank or captured French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay, trapping army of Bonaparte in Egypt.

Question 12

What did Bonaparte decide to do considering that he did not have his fleet?

Answer 12

Without his fleet, in Feb. 1799, Bonaparte decided to head towards Syria to secure land approaches to Egypt, and possibly the overland route to India.

Question 13

What happened when the French army captured Jaffa in 1799?

Answer 13

Between 2,000 and 4,500 prisoners were executed. While resting there, part of army was decimated by plague.

Question 14

What progress did the French army make and what pushed them back to Egypt?

Answer 14

The French progressed northward, capturing Haifa, several forts, and even Tyre, but they failed to seize Acre in spite of siege lasting from 20 March to 21 May 1799. This, together with landing of British force led by Sidney Smith, forced French to retreat to Egypt.

Question 15

What happened on January 24th 1800?

Answer 15

French officers and Grand Vizier Yusuf Ziya Pasha signed, in presence of Sidney Smith, Convention of El Arish for repatriation of French troops to France as a way for France to get out of Egypt.

Question 16

Did the British agree to this?

Answer 16

No, they demanded instead the complete surrender of the
French, who were to be treated as prisoners of war.

Question 17

What finally happened on 30 Aug, 1801?

Answer 17

On 30 Aug. 1801, General Menou, who had taken over command after assassination of Kléber, surrendered. French were then transported back to
France on British ships.

Question 18

What reforms had the French set up while in Egypt?

Answer 18

1) The old ruling class was removed: Ottoman and Mamluk officials were replaced by French and local officials. It was the 1st time since 16th century that Egyptians were invited to take
part in running of Egypt.

2) A new direct tax system, with more modern methods of assessment and collection,replaced old, inefficient Ottoman tax system.

Even if shortlived it meant that Egypt modernised more quickly.

Question 19

What was one very negative effect of the aftermath of the French invasion?

Answer 19

Coptic Christians were persecuted as well as Muslims that had collaborated with the French

Question 20

What did the French Egyptian expedition prompt the English to do?

Answer 20

To intervene alongside Ottomans. Interest of the British was obvious: it was to prevent French from blocking Mediterranean-Red Sea route
to India and to make any progress towards India.

Question 21

Which other country sided with the Ottoman Empire against France in this period?

Answer 21

In Sept. 1798, Russians,
fearing French intervention in Balkans, sent squadron through Straits and onto eastern Mediterranean to support the Ottoman Empire.

Question 22

What other actions in this period had France taken which worried other powers?

Answer 22

One year earlier, on 17 Oct. 1797, under Treaty of Campo Formio between France and Austria, France had gained control of Corfu and other Venetian possessions in Ionian Sea. In Saint Petersburg, these were seen as possible stepping stones towards Balkans.

Question 23

Which Powers unusually made an agreement in the face of French aggression?

Answer 23

Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

On 3 Jan. 1799, treaty was signed between Saint Petersburg and Porte,
guaranteeing integrity of Ottoman Empire.

(Another factor that made treaty possible was death of Catherine in Nov. 1796. New Tsar, Paul, abandoned aggressive positions of his mother and advocated rapprochement with Porte in order to counter advance of Revolutionary France in Adriatic and eastern Mediterranean)

Question 24

What impact in the short term did this alliance have?

Answer 24

In March 1799, joint Russo-Ottoman campaign drove French out of Ionian islands.

(However, victory led to conflict between two allies as both Russians and Ottoman sought to establish their authority over Adriatic)

Question 25

Which countries sought to confirm their alliance with the Ottoman Empire? What made this difficult?

Answer 25

Russia and Britain - but ongoing presence of British troops in Egypt made that difficult.

Question 26

Which power was the Ottoman Empire siding with most at this time?

Answer 26

Opinions differed.

Some, led by Grand Admiral Küçük Hüseyin, were defending idea of renewed alliancewith France against both Britain and Russia;

While others, led by Grand Vizier Yusuf Ziya Pasha, argued that support of Britain wasbest guarantee to preserve empire from ambitions of both Russians and French.

Question 27

When did the Serbian revolution take place?

Answer 27

Between 1804 and 1815 - and a latter period between 1815 and 1833

Question 28

What were the causes of the Serbian revolution?

Answer 28

1) By the late 18th century, the Serbian population in the Balkans was increasingly discontent with Ottoman rule. The primary issues included oppressive taxes, corruption, and the domination of the Janissaries, who had grown powerful and abusive in the region.

2) Serbs, predominantly Orthodox Christians, were subjected to heavy burdens by the local Ottoman authorities and Janissaries, particularly after the Janissaries regained control of Belgrade following the Treaty of Sistova (1791). This return of the Janissaries marked the beginning of an especially harsh period for the Serbs.

3) At the same time, Serbian nationalism was on the rise, partly inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the earlier success of the Russian and Austrian armies against the Ottomans. Russia, in particular, played a significant role as a source of encouragement for Orthodox Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire, including the Serbs

4) the weakening of the Ottoman Empire was not only due to internal Ottoman decay but also because of the strategic interests of the European Great Powers. The Ottomans were under pressure from Austria and Russia, both of whom sought to exploit the empire’s weakening grip on its Balkan territories.

Question 29

What was the “Slaughter of the Knezes” in 1804? Why was it so important?

Answer 29

It was when the Janissaries, fearing loss of control, killed several prominent Serbian leaders (knezes) in an effort to suppress any potential rebellion. This massacre sparked the First Serbian Uprising.

Question 30

Who was the main leader of the first revolution?

Answer 30

Karađorđe Petrović:

Question 31

Was he successful

Answer 31

Yes

Question 32

Which country did the revolutionaries, in the first revolution ask for support from

Answer 32

Russia

Question 33

What temporary gains were made?

Answer 33

By 1807, the rebels had established a functioning autonomous Serbian government with an assembly (skupština) and a council (Praviteljstvujušči sovjet). Although they did not declare full independence, they effectively governed large areas of Serbia for a period.

Question 34

Why was the Serbian autonomy short lived?

Answer 34

After the withdrawal of Russian support due to the Napoleonic Wars, the Ottomans launched a counter-offensive and crushed the rebellion by 1813. Karađorđe fled into exile, and Ottoman control was re-established with brutal reprisals against the Serbs.

Question 35

Who was the leader of the second Serbian revolution?

Answer 35

Miloš Obrenović,

Question 36

How did this revolution differ from the first?

Answer 36

Unlike the first uprising, Miloš sought to negotiate with the Ottoman authorities rather than pursue a full-scale war.

Question 37

What was the outcome of the second revolution?

Answer 37

The second uprising was more successful in terms of achieving political objectives. Miloš’s diplomatic efforts, combined with a more restrained military campaign, led to the recognition of Serbia as an autonomous principality under Ottoman suzerainty by 1817.

Question 38

Was Milos Obrenovic’s leadership successful?

Answer 38

Miloš Obrenović became the prince (knez) of the newly autonomous Serbian principality. He maintained a delicate balance between asserting Serbian interests and maintaining Ottoman suzerainty, effectively laying the groundwork for Serbia’s future independence.

Question 39

What was the significance of the Serbian Revolution?

Answer 39

1) National Awakening: The Serbian Revolution was a crucial moment in the national awakening of the Serbian people. It not only re-established a form of self-government in Serbia but also inspired other Balkan nations in their quests for independence from Ottoman rule.

2) Influence on the Balkans: The revolution had a wider impact on the Balkans, as it contributed to the weakening of Ottoman control over the region and the rise of nationalist movements among other Christian populations, such as the Greeks, Bulgarians, and Romanians.

3) Russian Influence: Russia’s involvement in the Serbian revolution highlighted its role as the protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and set the stage for future Russian support of Balkan nationalist movements.

40 Serbian Autonomy: While Serbia did not achieve full independence until later in the 19th century (formally recognized by the Ottomans in 1878), the revolution of the early 19th century was the first step toward establishing a modern Serbian state.

Question 40

And what was the greater legacy of the Serbian revolution?

Answer 40

1) The revolution is viewed as one of the early and decisive movements in the Balkans that would eventually lead to the dissolution of Ottoman control over the region.

2) It also marked the beginning of the long rivalry between the two leading Serbian dynasties: the Karađorđević family, descended from Karađorđe Petrović, and the Obrenović family, led by Miloš Obrenović. This rivalry would shape much of Serbia’s 19th- and early 20th-century history

Question 41

Were there internal divisions in Serbian society during the revolution?

Answer 41

There were internal divisions within Serbian society during the revolution. There were class tensions between the Serbian peasantry, who bore the brunt of Ottoman oppression, and the local elites, some of whom were willing to collaborate with the Ottoman authorities.

Question 42

Was the Serbian Nationalist movement divided?

Answer 42

The Serbian nationalist movement itself was divided between different factions, with some pushing for immediate independence, while others, like Miloš, preferred a more cautious approach aimed at gaining autonomy within the Ottoman system rather than outright independence.