Lectures Flashcards

Question

Answer 1

front/belly

Answer 2

1. coronal 2. sagittal 3. horizontal

Answer 3

divides front and back of brain

Answer 4

splits brain into the two hemispheres (along the longitudinal fissure)

Answer 5

divides top and bottom of brain

Answer 6

neural tube entire brain comes from this tube

Answer 7

forebrain midbrain hindbrain

Answer 8

telencephalon (cerebrum) diencephalon (lower structures)

Answer 9

1. cortex 2. limbic system 3. basal ganglia

Answer 10

1. thalamus 2. hypothalamus

Answer 11

cerebral cortex

Answer 12

consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, memory

Answer 13

4 lobes frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital

Answer 14

connects hemispheres of brain

Answer 15

3 mm covers both hemispheres

Answer 16

grey matter bodies of the neural cells

Answer 17

axons means that all the grey matter (cell bodies) are connected all over the brain by the white matter (axons)

Answer 18

uses water to show the neuron connections and their activity

Answer 19

1. reasoning/executive functioning (PFC) 2. motor control (motor cortex) 3. emotion 4. language (Broca's area)

Answer 20

PFC precentral gyrus

Answer 21

essential for language production in frontal lobe

Answer 22

case of Phineas Gage

Answer 23

railroad construction accident survivor large iron rod was driven completely through his head

Answer 24

widespread lesion of LEFT FRONTAL LOBE

Answer 25

affected personality and behaviour

Answer 26

processes sensory info of the body contains SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX

Answer 27

postcentral gyrus

Answer 28

topographically ie. cortical homunculus

Answer 29

main: processing auditory signals secondary: learning, memory, language, integrates info from other brain regions

Answer 30

at back of head interprets VISUAL info also involved in balance - cerebellum

Answer 31

illegal in boxing to punch at the back of the head because it can cause loss of vision

Answer 32

regions other than the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are SUBCORTICAL

Answer 33

1. amygdala (fear/anxiety) 2. hippocampus (learning/memory) 3. hypothalamus (homeostasis - connection with endocrine system) 4. thalamus (relay centre of brain)

Answer 34

amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus

Answer 35

cortisol reacts to stress

Answer 36

initial emotional responses

Answer 37

between brainstem and neocortex acts like a bridge between these two areas

Answer 38

not really but it's agreed upon that the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus and hypothalamus are part of it

Answer 39

hypothalamus

Answer 40

watching movie 1. hypothalamus receives a signal from the amygdala that something frightening is being presented 2. hypothalamus triggers the fear/fight or flight response

Answer 41

the hypothalamus

Answer 42

can't convert STM to LTM (anterograde amnesia) people feel less fear, hyper-sexuality and mellowness

Answer 43

and she couldn't feel fear as a result

Answer 44

suffered from seizures removed hippocampus in attempt to treat it function of hippocampus was unknown at the time seizures stopped, IQ improved ONE PROBLEM: his memory was gone - lost most memories of past - short term mem couldn't be consolidated couldn't form new memories but could keep it in working memory

Answer 45

monolithic and stored in the same place in the brain HM paved way to distinction between STM and LTM and idea that diff mems are stored in diff areas

Answer 46

memory consolidation STM to LTM

Answer 47

1. basal ganglia 2. cerebellum ^these two structures were both intact in HM's brain

Answer 48

substantia nigra ventral tegmental area (located deep within the brain)

Answer 49

mood, reward and addiction

Answer 50

1. medulla 2. pons 3. cerebellum

Answer 51

controls automatic processes of ANS blood, breathing, heart rate

Answer 52

connects hindbrain to rest of brain means "bridge"

Answer 53

receives msgs from joints and ear structures controls balance some procedural memory

Answer 54

1. neurons 2. glial cells

Answer 55

Greek word for "glue"

Answer 56

1. hold neurons in place 2. act as supportive cells

Answer 57

1. providing support to neurons 2. repairing damage 3. fighting infections 4. influencing neurotransmission

Answer 58

1. microglia 2. oligodendrocyte 3. astrocyte

Answer 59

immune response homeostasis supporting neuronal function

Answer 60

produce myelin sheaths that wrap around axons nurturing and sustaining the environment around axons

Answer 61

neural support repair damage regulate neuronal communication

Answer 62

schwann cells

Answer 63

satellite cells

Answer 64

excitable can be excited in certain situations

Answer 65

serve as input sites where SIGNALS ARE RECEIVED from other neurons are different at diff ages old people have less, and shorter, dendritic spines

Answer 66

stress can reduce number of dendritic spines

Answer 67

one or two axon terminals

Answer 68

spines have diff (abnormal) formations in intellectual disabilities

Answer 69

longest projections from the soma end at multiple terminal buttons

Answer 70

where the signal (action potential) finishes where the neuron communicates with another neuron/other cells

Answer 71

central part of neuron

Answer 72

watery fluid called CYTOSOL

Answer 73

watery fluid inside the cell salty, potassium rich solution

Answer 74

neuronal membrane

Answer 75

organelles (ribosomes, proteins) cell body of neuron contains SAME organelles found in all animal cells

Answer 76

produces proteins spherical, centrally located part of the neuron cell

Answer 77

DOUBLE MEMBRANE called the nuclear envelope

Answer 78

the double membrane that contains the nucleus it's perforated by POREES

Answer 79

have TRANSCRIPTIONAL properties

Answer 80

some hormones affect the nucleus bind to receptors GENE TRANSCRIPTION to create proteins

Answer 81

1. RNA molecules are synthesized by RNA polymerase 2. then processed into mRNA to carry genetic instructions for protein assembly from nucleus to cytoplasm 3. transcription is initiated at promoter region of gene and stopped at terminator region 4. initial RNA must be spliced to remove the introns that don't code for protein 5. then are exported from nucleus

Answer 82

1. serves as BARRIER to enclose the cytoplasm inside the neuron 2. excludes certain substances that float in the fluid that bathes the neuron 3. various types of proteins are embedded within the neuron cell membrane

Answer 83

1. ion channels 2. transporters 3. receptors 4. enzymes

Answer 84

allow the passage of ions (ie. sodium, potassium, calcium) in and out of the cell facilitates nerve impulse transmission

Answer 85

assist in the movement of molecules and ions across the membrane

Answer 86

bind to specific neurotransmitters or signalling molecules, initiating cellular responses

Answer 87

catalyze specific chemical reactions crucial for cellular functions

Answer 88

membrane and its associated proteins

Answer 89

electrical charge

Answer 90

cell is at rest not generating impulses inside the cell = negative outside the cell = positive

Answer 91

ion channels sodium, potassium and chloride sodium and potassium = positively charged chloride = negatively charged

Answer 92

uses energy (via ATP -> ADP) to constantly pump 3 sodium ions OUT of the cell and 2 potassium ions INTO the cell uses energy to constantly maintain the difference in electrical charge

Answer 93

less positive than the electrical charge outside the cell so more negative inside the cell

Answer 94

60-70% very energy-demanding

Answer 95

rapid reversal of the resting state the membrane becomes positively charged

Answer 96

FREQUENCY and PATTERN

Answer 97

-70 mV while the outside is positive

Answer 98

sodium channels because sodium ions are more concentrated OUTSIDE the cell, they flow inside the cell (concentration gradient) because sodium is positive, the membrane DEPOLARIZES

Answer 99

cell depolarizes with the stimulus sodium ions enter the cell and make the inside positively charged reaches a peak of 50 mV then there is a process of REPOLARIZATION where the neuron returns to resting state

Answer 100

when neuron is too negative cannot depolarize/fire in this state refractory period

Answer 101

potassium channels potassium leaves the cell (because of concentration gradient) until it reaches its resting state of -70 mV once more

Answer 102

sodium-potassium pump brings 2 potassiums into cell brings 3 sodiums out of cell now ready for another action potential

Answer 103

myelinated with nodes of ranvier = faster transmission signal/action potential jumps from node to node

Answer 104

1. all same size 2. all same duration 3. don't diminish as they move down the axon 4. frequency and pattern of action potentials constitute the code used by neurons to transfer info from one location to another 5. very rapid - 100 times faster than blink of an eye

Answer 105

about 2 milliseconds

Answer 106

action potentials undergo summation potentially is enough to generate the release of neurotransmitters

Answer 107

1. neurotransmitter release 2. receptor binding 3. ion channels open/close 4. conductance change causes current flow 5. postsynaptic potential changes 6. postynaptic ions excited or inhibited

Answer 108

ionotropic: ligand-gated ion channels metabotropic: G-protein coupled receptors

Answer 109

DANS 1. dopamine 2. acetylcholine 3. norepinephrine 4. serotonin NTs occur in specific pathways, aren't just randomly distributed across the cortex

Answer 110

the -70 mV difference between the inside and the outside of the cell this difference in charge creates the potential for action and for rest as well

Answer 111

fast slow (because the hormone must travel through the bloodstream to reach the target)

Answer 112

scientific study of the BIDIRECTIONAL interactions between hormones and behaviour hormones can affect behaviour, and behaviour can influence hormones

Answer 113

they affect individuals': 1. sensory systems 2. integrators 3. effectors (output systems) ^all three of these are important for behaviour, and hormones affect all of them

Answer 114

organic chemical messenger released from endocrine cells travels through blood system to interact with cells via very specific receptors

Answer 115

ductless glands from which hormones are released into the blood stream release hormones in response to specific physiological signals

Answer 116

1. they change gene expression 2. or they change rate of cellular function these two things affect behaviour by increasing the probability that a given behaviour will occur in the presence of a specific stimulus

Answer 117

endocrine cells: ie. fat - fat releases hormones endocrine glands: - produce and release hormones - can be released by direct innervations or if something binds to the gland (cascade)

Answer 118

but also in several human ATTRIBUTES and CHARACTERISTICS

Answer 119

1. Lance Armstrong admittedly used EPO, blood transfusions, testosterone and corticosteroids when competing 2. Testosterone treatment 3. Messi had Growth Hormone Deficiency (GHD) and received GHD injections

Answer 120

gain of body mass higher levels of aggression/paranoia messes with feedback mechanisms between communication between brain and testes

Answer 121

remarkably multidisciplinary from the very beginning relationships among endocrine glands, their hormone products and behaviour have been implicitly recognized for centuries

Answer 122

male sex organs (testes) produce and secrete a hormone called testosterone that influences sexual behaviour, aggression, territoriality, as well as other behaviours that differentiate males from females

Answer 123

the last known castrato removing testes causes behavioural changes Europe in times past - if you were a young boy with a good voice, the Church might castrate you to keep your voice high (castratos) childlike voice

Answer 124

ablation and replacement

Answer 125

1. gland that is suspected to be the source of the hormone affecting behaviour is surgically removed 2. effects on behaviour are observed 3. hormone is replaced by re-implantation, injection of an extract from the gland, or injecting a purified hormone 4. determination is made whether the observed consequences of removal are reversed by the hormonal replacement therapy

Answer 126

first ever hormones and behaviour experiment had three groups of chicks group 1: castrated group 2: castrated and re-implanted group 3: castrated and transplanted

Answer 127

castrated caponization - small comb and wattles - no interest in hens - no aggression towards other males

Answer 128

castrated and reimplantation of testes normal male development - normal comb and wattles - normal male behaviour

Answer 129

castration and transplantation of testes normal male development - normal comb and wattles - normal male behaviour

Answer 130

1. testes are transplantable organs 2. transplanted testes can function and produce sperm 3. because testes functioned normally after all nerves were severed, there are no specific nerves directing testicular function - so certain glands receive info from innervations, but not all - can conclude that something in the blood is functioning to affect behaviour

Answer 131

simple behaviour this narrow focus on only a few behavioural measures is partially a response to the enormous variation in complex behaviours this approach has advantages and disadvantages

Answer 132

1. description of action - how questions: allow us to infer causation and role of experience 2. description of consequence - why questions: evolution and function

Answer 133

mechanisms (how question) development (how question) evolution (why question) function (why question)

Answer 134

1. immediate causation: the physiological mechanisms underlying behaviour 2. development: the role of experience in individual behaviour

Answer 135

1. evolution: the perspective(s) adopted by biologists who assume that evolutionary processes are central to issues in ecology, systematics, and behaviour 2. adaptive function: the role of any structural, physiological, or behavioural process that increases an individual's fitness to survive and reproduce

Answer 136

1. a hormonally-dependent behaviour should disappear when the source of the hormone is removed, or the actions of the hormone are blocked 2. after the behaviour stops, restoration of the missing hormonal source or its hormone should reinstate the absent behaviour 3. hormone concentrations and the behaviours in question should be covariant: the behaviour should be observed only when hormone concentrations are relatively high and never/rarely when hormone concentrations are low

Answer 137

have a long latency of action

Answer 138

pusatile manner ie. secretion of cortisol occurs approximately every 90 minutes

Answer 139

1. quasi-experimental designs 2. comparison groups 3. natural observations 4. non-random assignment 5. use of statistical controls

Answer 140

inferring causation in a research setting in cases where experimenting would be unethical/difficult this approach falls between experimental and non-experimental designs aims to investigate cause-and-effect like experimental design, but often lacks some key elements (like random assignment)

Answer 141

researchers might compare groups that naturally differ in hormone levels (such as individuals with naturally high vs low testosterone) or groups influenced by external factors (such as individuals using hormone replacemeent therapy versus those not using it)

Answer 142

these designs often rely on naturally occurring variations in hormone levels rather than manipulating them artificially try not to influence/bias the quantification

Answer 143

participants aren't randomly assigned to groups due to limitations in controlling or manipulating hormone levels in a controlled manner instead, researchers observe and compare existing groups try to account for confounders in the analysis - lack of random assignment makes it harder to establish causality

Answer 144

quasi-experimental designs employ statistical techniques to control for confounding variables to strengthen the validity of the findings

Answer 145

a clear cause-and-effect relationship between hormones and behaviour

Answer 146

examination of relationships between variables without intervening or manipulating them instead of seeking causation, they aim to IDENTIFY ASSOCIATIONS/CORRELATIONS between variables to understand how they relate to each other

Answer 147

1. measurement of variables 2. assessment of relationships 3. no manipulation of variables 4. identification of associations

Answer 148

researchers measure 2+ variables to determine if they're related these variables can be anything measurable (height, age, test scores, hormone levels...)

Answer 149

statistical analyses, likely correlation coefficients, are used to assess the STRENGTH and DIRECTION of relationships between variables correlation coefficients range from -1 to 1 (positive, negative or no relationship)

Answer 150

in contrast to experimental designs, correlational studies don't manipulate variables or control experimental conditions instead, they observe and analyze existing data

Answer 151

these studies can reveal is changes in one variable = associated with changes in another variable ie. correlational study might examine whether there's a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression

Answer 152

study changes in variables over an EXTENDED PERIOD within the SAME INDIVIDUALS/GROUPS unlike cross-sectional studies that capture data at a single point in time, longitudinal studies follow participants over time

Answer 153

1. data collection over time 2. tracking changes 3. identification of trends and patterns 4. analysis of stability and change 5. challenges and attrition 6. resource-intensive

Answer 154

measured cortisol during 1st, 2nd and 3rd trimesters cortisol release in 1st semester = more similar to non-pregnant women but in 2nd and 3rd trimester, cortisol is produced more during the day this expression has an association with depressive symptoms

Answer 155

very important technique in behavioural endocrinology analytical techniques used for the quantification of an analyte (hormone) based on the antigen-antibody reaction

Answer 156

a molecule that can bind to a specific antibody

Answer 157

by injecting the hormone of interest (antigen) into an animal to raise an antibody against the hormone body produces very specific antibodies, and the given antigen will only bind to a certain antibody

Answer 158

assays that use LIVING TISSUES/ANIMALS to test effects of hormones/other chemical compounds useful historically - measured biological response to hormone in question sometimes determined PRESENCE/ABSENCE of hormone in question sometimes allowed QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT of specific hormones test the effects of the hormone and measure its biological activity on a living animal but require much time and labour

Answer 159

relies on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) ^a hormone produced during pregnancy 1. take pregnant woman's urine 2. inject that urine into the mice 3. if the hCG hormone was present in the mice, the animal's ovaries would enlarge and show follicular maturation

Answer 160

1927-1960: used the animal testing method (urine injection) - carried out in lab 1960-1988: antibody testing method (blood tests, pregnancy test sticks) - carried out at the doctor's office/at home

Answer 161

competitive binding of an antibody to its antigen (hormone) that results in a change in radioactivity a radioactive antigen competes with a non-radioactive antigen for a fixed number of antibody binding sites an antibody produced in response to any antigen (in this case a hormone) has a binding site that is specific for that antigen antibodies have a given number of binding sites for its antigen - antigen molecules can be "labeled" with radioactivity - antibody cannot discriminate between radiolabeled (hot) and normal (cold) antigen radiolabeled hormone and cold hormone compete for binding sites on antibody so the more cold hormone there is present in the tube, the less hot hormone will bind to the antibody quantity of hot hormone that binds can be determined by precipitating the antibody and measuring the associated radioactivity resulting from the radiolabeled hormone that remains bound concentration of hormone in sample can then be determined by subjecting sample to same procedure and comparing results with standard curve

Answer 162

several test tubes with different known concentrations of the hormone (antigens that are unlabeled and radioactive labeled) and the antibody are used to BENCHMARK hormone concentration

Answer 163

in radioimmunoassay, the known hormone concentration

Answer 164

in radioimmunoassay, the known RADIOLABELED hormone concentration

Answer 165

use antibodies to detect and quantitate the amount of antigen (hormone) in a sample increase precision with which hormone concentrations can be measured

Answer 166

in the well, place antibodies introduce the corresponding antigen - labelled antigen - this will bind to the antibodies then add the unlabelled antigen (ie. from patient serum) we want to see if the serum has the unlabelled antigen or not if the sample has a bunch of unlabeled antigens (radioactive), then radioactivity would DECREASE progressively with the increase in antigen concentration

Answer 167

radioactivity would decrease progressively with the increase of the antigen concentration

Answer 168

won't fall that much because there's less competition for binding (less labeled antigens are being replaced by unlabeled antigens)

Answer 169

step 1: immune reaction - radiolabeled antigen - competition between labeled and unlabeled antigens step 2: competitive displacement - radiolabeled antigen released - unlabeled antigen (hormone) binds step 3: radioactivity count - measure radioactivity

Answer 170

most common way to quantify hormones uses an enzyme instead of radioactivity ie. Rapid Covid Test

Answer 171

step 1: have a well of captured antibody - add the antigen that we want to measure (antigen binds to antibody) step 2: add labelled antibody - labelled antibody will attached to first set of antibody/antigen step 3: add the substrate and enzyme - substrate will attach to the labelled antibody - enzyme will cause a change in the substrate that will produce a SIGNAL (ie. change in colour) detect the signal and/or quantify the product

Answer 172

1. detect a hormone (ie. through colour change) 2. quantify a hormone using a standard curve (gradient of colour)

Answer 173

immunocytochemistry: applied to CELLS immunohystochemistry: applied to TISSUES both use antibodies to determine the LOCATION of a hormone in a specific tissue/cell antibodies linked to marker molecules, such as those in fluorescent dye, are usually introduced into dissected tissue from an animal, where they bind with the hormone/neurochemical of interest

Answer 174

use fluorescence to determine the location of a hormone in a specific tissue/cell

Answer 175

determines the location of hormonal action (location of hormonal uptake and receptor location)

Answer 176

radiolabeled hormones are injected into a tissue/animal to determine hormonal uptake and indicate receptor location

Answer 177

step 1: - tissues = sliced into several very thin sections - adjacent sections = subjected to different treatments step 2: - one section of target tissue = stained in usual way to highlight various cellular structures step 3: - next section = placed in contact with photographic film - emission of radiation from radiolabeled hormone develops an image on the film step 4: - areas of high radioactivity on the film can then be compared with stained section to see how areas of highest hormone concentration correlate with structures

Answer 178

1. determine cellular structures 2. use radiation emission to determine location of radiolabeled hormone 3. overlay the structure with the hormone locations (dark spots on photo of structures = where radiolabeled hormone has undergone binding)

Answer 179

quantifyies several proteins at the same time technique used to fractionate mixtures of proteins, DNAs or RNAs so they can hybridize with markers that travel different distances in an electrophorectic gel based on their size electrophoresis: application of an electric current through a matrix/gel that results in a gradient of molecules separating out along the current basis of size (smaller molecules move farther than larger molecules during a set time period)

Answer 180

step 1: get the sample - tissue of interest is homogenized and the cells are lysed - makes it so that all the cells' contents are loose in the fluid step 2: homogenate is placed in gel and subjected to electrophoresis - the small electric current applied to the gel separates the proteins based on their electric charges step 3: transfer gel to a membrane - protein bands will have formed step 4: transfer gel to an incubator with a specific antibody - antibody is specific to the antigen that is being searched for step 5: detect bound antibody by chemiluminescence

Answer 181

chemiluminescence can quantify the substrate that emits the colourful reaction

Answer 182

determining whether a particular substance is produced in a specific tissue figuring out WHERE the protein/hormone is produced

Answer 183

immunohystochemistry technique is used to identify cells/tissues in which messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules encoding a specific protein (hormone/neurotransmitter) are being produced

Answer 184

it looks for specific sequences of mRNA - because if that mRNA is present in a tissue it means that gene transcription is happening for the protein of interest because mRNA is what carries the genetic info needed to produce proteins

Answer 185

step 1: tissue is fixed, sliced very thin, mounted on slides, and either dipped into an emulsion or placed over film - developed with photographic chemicals step 2: tissue is also counterstained to identify specific cellular structures step 3: radiolabeled cDNA probe is introduced into the tissue. if the mRNA of interest is present in the tissue, the cDNA will form a tight association (hybridize) with it step 4: the tightly bound cDNA, and hence the mRNA, will appear as dark spots

Answer 186

if the mRNA of interest is present in the tissue, the cDNA will form a tight association (hybridize) with it hybridization will appear as dark spots

Answer 187

IHC: marks protein ISH: marks RNA associated with gene expression for the same protein

Answer 188

polymerase chain reaction

Answer 189

PCRs use fluorescence PCRs amplify and replicate a specific segment of DNA and RNA this process creates NUMEROUS copies of the targeted DNA/RNA this enables detection and analysis basically, saliva provides nucleic acids and RNA or DNA - any viral contents will be marked and become fluorescent the viral mRNA will bind to complementary DNA of the test then we'll create a reaction to amplify the signal and we can quantify the presence of the hormone

Answer 190

in a RAPID ANTIGEN TEST patient test sample is mixed with chemicals that react with specific proteins on the surface of the SARS-Cov-2 virus saliva swabs - if mRNA from virus is present, the immune response will occur and colour will change

Answer 191

1. bioassays 2. radioimmunoassays 3. enzyme immunoassays (EIA) or enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 4. autoradiography 5. blot tests 6. in situ hybridization

Answer 192

biological assays assessing the effects of substances uses living animal tissues

Answer 193

measures concentrations of antigens using radioactive labels concentrations of a given hormone is inversely related to the radioactive labels measures concentrations using standard curves

Answer 194

detects antigens or antibodies using enzyme-based reactions

Answer 195

visualizes proteins in cells (ICC) or tissues (IHC) does this using immmunohystochemistry labels antibodies with dyes or enzymes

Answer 196

captures and visualizes radioactively labeled molecules in the tissue photographic film is overlayed with an adjacent stained tissue

Answer 197

techniques (ie. Western blot) for transferring and detecting biomolecules using specific probes detects several proteins at same time

Answer 198

locates and visualizes specific nucleic acid sequences (ie. mRNA) within cells or tissues

Answer 199

use of synthetic chemical agents can alter the action/function of a hormone two major groups of synthetic chemical agents

Answer 200

1. agonists: simulate endocrine function by affecting hormonal release 2. antagonists: inhibit endocrine function by affecting hormonal release (blocking hormones)

Answer 201

cyproterone acetate -> anti testosterone cyproterone acetate binds to the testosterone reception inactivates it testosterone levels fall

Answer 202

1. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Answer 203

PET injection of radiotracers - specific molecules (hormone) PET scanner detects the radioactivity as the compound accumulates in different regions can infer the locus of the hormone's action

Answer 204

fMRI involves exposing brain to multiple magnetic fields high spatial and temporal resolution detects changes in brain activity during specific tasks/conditions can be task-based or resting-state

Answer 205

discrete region of DNA within a chromosome that when expressed (transcribed), leads to the production of ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Answer 206

relating to an animal in which a gene has been INSERTED, ALTERED, or DELETED

Answer 207

an individual, usually a mouse, in which a specific gene has been INACTIVATED

Answer 208

animal whose tissues are composed of two or more genetically distinct cell types alter DNA in the embryonic (not yet differentiated) cells - these cells will multiply in the embryo - born as chimera

Answer 209

new innovation timing and tissue-specific placement of the targeted gene disruption can be controlled

Answer 210

insertion, alteration (over or under-expression), deletion of genes study resulting behaviour

Answer 211

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) revolutionary tech in molecular biology that allows precise editing of genes WITHIN organisms involves cutting DNA at specific location using the Cas9 protein guided by a designed RNA sequence this precise DNA cleavage allows researchers to introduce modifications by relying on the cell's natural repair mechanisms allows insertion of new DNA sequence

Answer 212

leptin is a hormone that helps maintenance of normal weight on a long term basis

Answer 213

the amount of body fat that you have

Answer 214

feel hungry and eat more even though your body has sufficient fat stores

Answer 215

specific mutations in mice cause extreme obesity in those that are homozygous for the defective gene considered natural knockouts

Answer 216

studies of body mass regulation

Answer 217

defective ob genes they are HYPERPHAGIC (overeat), obese, reproductively sterile

Answer 218

availability of purified leptin allows researchers to produce specific antibodies to this substance that could be used in developing assays to determine concentration in blood

Answer 219

determine the blood plasma leptin concentrations of obese and diabetic humans the anti-leptin antiserum was raised in a rabbit against highly purified recombinant human leptin

Answer 220

both white and brown adipose tissue as well as other peripheral tissues

Answer 221

purified leptin was labeled with a radioactive tag and then injected into mice autoradiography

Answer 222

blot tests can typically determine WHETHER OR NOT a particular substance is PRESENT in a specific tissue in situ hybridization can determine WHETHER a particular substance is PRODUCED in a specific tissue - can also quantify the substance being produce - and have higher resolution/sensitivity than blot tests

Answer 223

chemical messengers that travel through the blood stream target specific organs/tissues

Answer 224

the physiology and behaviour of an animal they do this by regulating, integrating and controlling its bodily function

Answer 225

yes examples: gonadotropin hormone, epinephrine

Answer 226

yes they can travel anywhere in the body via the circulatory system any cell receiving blood is potentially able to receive a hormonal message hormonal messages can travel up to 2 meters in the blood system

Answer 227

1. speed - because hormones travel through the blood, hormonal signals are slower than neural ones 2. precision - as hormones travel long distances, they need very specific receptors - the specificity of receptors is what makes hormonal signalling so precise

Answer 228

epinephrine can have more than one effect 1. in liver cell - epinephrine binds to beta receptor - causes glycogen deposits to break down - glucose is released from cell 2. in skeletal muscle blood vessel - epinephrine attaches to beta receptor - vessel dilates

Answer 229

1. intracrine mediation 2. autocrine mediation 3. paracrine mediation 4. endocrine mediation 5. ectocrine mediation

Answer 230

intracrine substances regulate INTRACELLULAR events ie. molecules produced at the nucleus of a neuron affect the axon of the same cell

Answer 231

autocrine substances feed back to influence the same cells that secreted them LEAVE AND THEN RETURN TO THE SAME CELL affect the cell that first produced the hormone cells have receptors for their own products

Answer 232

paracrine cells secrete chemicals that affect ADJACENT CELLS

Answer 233

endocrine cells secrete chemicals into the BLOODSTREAM, where they may travel to DISTANT TARGET CELLS

Answer 234

released into the ENVIRONMENT by individuals to communicate with others ie. pheromones

Answer 235

any substance that is produced by a cell that affects the function of another cell

Answer 236

chemical messenger that evokes proliferation of other cells especially in the immune system

Answer 237

chemical messenger that's released into the bloodstream or tissue fluid system that affects the function of target cells some distance from the source

Answer 238

hormone produced by a neuron

Answer 239

hormone that changes (modulates) the response of a neuron to some other factors

Answer 240

peptide hormone produced by a neuron

Answer 241

steroid hormone produced by a neuron

Answer 242

chemical messenger that acts across the neural space

Answer 243

yes produced in hypothalamus or pituitary pass along the axons of neurons and then are released into the bloodstream

Answer 244

oxytocin vasopressin norepinephrine gonadotropin-releasing hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone

Answer 245

true closed structure - no ducts that communicate with body so rely on blood vessels for communication

Answer 246

1. endocrine glands are ductless 2. endocrine glands have a rich blood supply 3. hormones, the products of endocrine glands, are secreted into the bloodstream 4. hormones can travel in the blood to virtually every cell in the body and can thus potentially interact with any cell that has appropriate receptors 5. hormone receptors are specific binding sites, embedded in the cell membrane or located elsewhere in the cell, that interact with a particular hormone/class of hormones

Answer 247

either embedded in the cell membrane or located elsewhere in the cell

Answer 248

yes like the pancreas

Answer 249

exocrine: - secrete substances into a ductal system to an epithelial surface endocrine: - secrete products directly into the bloodstream

Answer 250

exocrine: pancreas secretes digestive juices into the intestines via DUCTS endocrine: pancreas secretes hormones directly into the BLOODSTREAM from here they travel throughout the body to regulate energy utilization and storage

Answer 251

insufficient receptors might cause endocrine deficiency if there aren't enough receptors, we call this 'resistance' ie. insulin resistance

Answer 252

when the blood concentration of a hormone is high, they can sometimes bind with receptors that are meant for a different hormone causes a biological response

Answer 253

1. size 2. chemical properties

Answer 254

polypeptides (proteins and peptides) steroids amines lipid-based (some authors don't include this last one)

Answer 255

water-soluble (hydrophilic) or lipid-soluble (hydrophobic)

Answer 256

hydrophilic

Answer 257

hydrophobic

Answer 258

hydrophilic (water-soluble) so they dissolve well in watery plasma blood but the cell membrane = lipid - so water can't mix so polypeptides bind to the cell's surface receptors, which relay info to nucleus via intracellular signalling

Answer 259

in vesicles within cells can't freely enter cell because cell membrane is made of lipids

Answer 260

hydrophobic (lipid-soluble) can easily pass through the lipid cell membrane but cannot travel through watery blood so need a transporter protein to move through blood

Answer 261

a transporter protein because steroids are hydrophobic

Answer 262

peptide hormones = exocytosis steroid hormones = simple diffusion

Answer 263

it's in onenote

Answer 264

transcriptional properties

Answer 265

produced by the placenta

Answer 266

1. hypothalamus 2. pineal gland 3. pituitary gland (anterior and posterior) 4. thyroid 5. adrenal glands (medulla and cortex) 6. pancreas 7. gut 8. gonads (testes/ovaries)

Answer 267

control of hormone secretions

Answer 268

reproductive maturation body rhythm

Answer 269

hormone secretion by thyroid, adrenal cortex and gonads growth

Answer 270

water balance salt balance

Answer 271

growth and development metabolic rate

Answer 272

salt and carbohydrate metabolism inflammatory reactions

Answer 273

emotional arousal

Answer 274

sugar metabolism

Answer 275

digestion and appetite control

Answer 276

body development maintenance of reproductive organs in adults

Answer 277

comprises several collections of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) at the base of the brain receives projections from the brain controls hormone secretion (and produces hormones)

Answer 278

1. releasing hormones - stimulates the release of certain hormones from glands 2. inhibiting hormones - inhibits the release of certain hormones from glands

Answer 279

1. thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 2. growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH, somatocrinin) 3. gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 4. melanotropin-releasing hormone (MRH) 5. corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 6. kisspeptin ^these are all EXCITATORY

Answer 280

1. somatostatin (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone/GHIH) 2. gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH) 3. dopamine (DA) ^these are all INHIBITORY

Answer 281

it's at the base of the brain comprises several collections of neuronal cell bodies or nuclei receives projections from the brain

Answer 282

excitatory hypothalamic hormone stimulates secretion of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC hormone

Answer 283

act on another gland - get it to release a hormone

Answer 284

nourishment ie. adrenocorticotropic means a hormone that nourishes the adrenal gland

Answer 285

excitatory hypothalamic hormone controls the release of: 1. LUTEINISING HORMONE (LH) 2. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

Answer 286

excitatory hypothalamic hormone tells appropriate gland to release growth hormone (GH)

Answer 287

excitatory hypothalamic hormone tells pituitary gland to produce/release THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)

Answer 288

excitatory hypothalamic hormone stimulates secretion of melanotropin

Answer 289

excitatory hypothalamic hormone initiates secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at puberty thus is involved in sexual maturation but it role isn't yet clearly described

Answer 290

inhibitory hypothalamic hormone dopamine is typically excitatory but in the endocrine system it's inhibitory prolactin-inhibitory hormone

Answer 291

inhibitory hypothalamic hormone acts to inhibit secretion of: 1. growth hormone (GH) 2. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) also has inhibitory effects on insulin, glucagon, secretin production

Answer 292

the "master gland"

Answer 293

because it mediates so many physiological processes - it secretes many hormones but now we know that it receives lots of commands from the hypothalamus it's really two distinct glands fused into one

Answer 294

1. roof of the mouth = anterior pituitary 2. base of the brain = posterior pituitary

Answer 295

via the PORTAL SYSTEM

Answer 296

the way that neurohormones travel from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary special closed blood circuit two beds of capillaries (one in hypothalamus and one in anterior pituitary) are connected by a vein hypothalamic factors stimulate cells in the anterior pituitary to secrete hormones in general circulation

Answer 297

hypothalamic neuro-secretory cells these cells innervate DIRECTLY to the posterior pituitary rather than being released into portal system, neurohormones are secreted directly into this structure here they enter blood vessels and the general circulation

Answer 298

1. axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons release neurohormones near capillaries that give rise to portal vessels 2. neurohormones from portal vessels stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from anterior pituitary cells 3. anterior pituitary hormones leave the gland via the blood so two steps really: hypothalamus releases neurohormones into the portal and then in response, the pituitary releases the specific hormones into general circulation

Answer 299

1. corticotropin-related peptides (painkillers/stress response) - adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - melanocyte-stimulating hormone - beta-endorphins 2. somatomammotropins (growth, breast milk) - growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) - prolactic (PRL) 3. glycoproteins (thyroid, gonads, sex hormones) - thryoid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - luteinizing hormone (LH) - follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Answer 300

(anterior pituitary hormones) 1. ACTH: stimulate synthesis/release of the following from the adrenal glands: - glucocorticoids - mineralocorticoids - androgenic steroids - exposure to stressful events can trigger ACTH release 2. beta-endorphins: endogenous opioids that resemble opiates in its action as a "natural" pain killer

Answer 301

polypeptides tropic hormones because they stimulate various physiological processes either by acting directly on target tissues or by causing other endocrine glands to release hormones

Answer 302

(anterior pituitary hormones) (think 'soma' - 'body' - growth) 1. growth hormone (GH): promote linear growth a) GH and somatotropin: enhance amino acid uptake and mRNA transcription/translation - increased protein synthesis 2. prolactin: promotes breast development, initiates milk synthesis

Answer 303

(anterior pituitary hormones) 1. TSH: works on thyroid gland to stimulate uptake of iodide and release of thyroid hormones 2. LH and FSH: bind to receptors in ovaries and testes, regulate gonad function stimulate sex steroid production and development of gametes

Answer 304

1. hypothalamic neurons produce vasopressin and oxytocin and transport them to the posterior pituitary 2. the neurohormones are released in the posterior pituitary and diffuse into capillaries 3. then leave the posterior pituitary via the blood hormones from posterior pituitary enter circulation more quickly than those from anterior pituitary

Answer 305

1. oxytocin and vasopressin = made and packaged in neurosecretory cell bodies 2. then are transported down the axons to be stored in vesicles at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary 3. can be released in response to a NEURAL IMPULSE via exocytosis and enter the bloodstream SO POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES CAN BE RELEASED AS FAST AS NEURAL IMPULSES

Answer 306

FROM VESICLES, SUPER QUICKLY released from vesicles at axon terminals in response to neural impulse via exocytosis from here enter bloodstream release is as fast as neural impulses

Answer 307

vasopressin oxytocin

Answer 308

aka antidiuretic hormone (ADH) acts to retain water in the body

Answer 309

it has pressor (hypertensive) effects pressor - pressin it causes the CONSTRICTION of blood vessels to help deal with blood loss

Answer 310

1. influences reproductive function in mammals 2. important during birth 3. causes uterine contractions 4. often used to medically induce labour 5. involved in suckling reflex

Answer 311

it's on desktop

Answer 312

top of midbrain above third ventricle just in front of cerebellum

Answer 313

secretary cells called PINEALOCYTES produce melatonin, that resembles serotonin

Answer 314

cells in the pineal gland they produce melatonin

Answer 315

synthesized from melatonin via the amino acid tryptophan

Answer 316

secreted into cerebrospinal fluid and bloodstream

Answer 317

the sympathetic NS in response to changing light levels as light levels fall, melatonin secretion increases as light levels rise, melatonin secretion ceases

Answer 318

related to control of the CIRCADIAN CYCLE OF SLEEP AND WAKEFULNESS by secreting melatonin

Answer 319

large bilateral structure in the neck consists of many spherical follicles

Answer 320

thyroid hormones in direct response to the thyrotropin-releasing hormone released by the anterior pituitary

Answer 321

iodinated substances T3 and T4 produces these dependent upon dietary levels of iodate low levels of dietary iodine result in REDUCED THYROID FUNCTION and HYPERTROPHY

Answer 322

swelling in the neck

Answer 323

increase oxidation rates in tissue 3 general areas of effect in mammals: 1. metabolism 2. growth and differentiation 3. reproduction

Answer 324

triiodothyronine (T3) thyroxine (T4)

Answer 325

rapidly across cell membranes but they need carrier protein to travel through the blood

Answer 326

1. regulation of body metabolism 2. control of development of brain and nervous system 3. sexual maturation 4. temperature regulation

Answer 327

1. hyperthyroidism - too much T3 and T4 are produced - weight loss, fast heart rate, weak menstrual cycle, shaky hands 2. hypothyroidism - under-active thyroid - weight gain, constipation, cold sensitivity

Answer 328

hypothyroidism had problems with weight

Answer 329

at the rear of the thyroid

Answer 330

1. both are protein hormones 2. both are involved in calcium metabolism

Answer 331

produced by C cells elevates blood levels of calcium does this by increasing reabsorption of calcium from the bone and from the gut via its effects on vitamin D3 also inhibits phosphate reabsorption from the kidney, reducing calcium clearance

Answer 332

released from C cells of the thyroid acts in opposition to parathyroid hormone lowers blood levels of calcium by inhibiting the release of calcium from bone

Answer 333

blood calcium levels there are no pituitary tropic hormones (releasing hormones) involved in their regulation direct reaction to calcium levels in blood

Answer 334

an endocrine and exocrine gland

Answer 335

exocrine cells these produce and secrete DIGESTIVE JUICES into the intestines BUT nested throughout the exocrine tissue are islands of endocrine tissue called islets of Langerhans

Answer 336

produce and secrete digestive juices into the intestines

Answer 337

islets of Langerhans

Answer 338

islands of endocrine tissue nested throughout the exocrine tissue of the pancreas within these endocrine islands, there are 4 cell types: - alpha cells - beta cells - theta cells - polypeptide-secreting cells

Answer 339

simple peptide similar to those of secretin family typically has 29 amino acids released from alpha cells of the pancreas

Answer 340

yes, all cells do NS (neuronal) cells do as well so insulin can have effects in the CNS as well as the PNS insulin resistance is correlated with depression and bipolar

Answer 341

once released from the alpha cells of the pancreas, glucagon travels first to the liver in the liver it stimulates glycogenolysis

Answer 342

breakdown of stored glycogen this acts in opposition of insulin and serves to increase blood levels of glucose

Answer 343

alpha cells release gulcagon glucagon travels to the liver there it stimulates glycogenolysis (breakdown of stored glycogen) acts in opposition of insulin: SERVES TO INCREASE BLOOD LEVELS OF GLUCOSE

Answer 344

release glucagon to increase blood levels of glucose

Answer 345

efficient movement of energy from the blood into the cells can lower blood sugar

Answer 346

disease caused by: 1. insulin deficiency 2. decreased response to insulin in target tissues thought that in type I diabetes, pancreatic islets are destroyed by immune assaults (autoimmune disorder)

Answer 347

lower blood sugar

Answer 348

1. glucagon releases glucose into blood stream 2. insulin lowers blood sugar they work in opposition with one another

Answer 349

release somatostatin somatostatin inhibits insulin release and glucagons locally in the pancreas

Answer 350

inhibitory hormone released from theta cells inhibits insulin and glucagon release in pancreas somatostatin = also released from hypothalamus to regulate release of growth hormone from anterior pituitary

Answer 351

type I: - genetic condition appearing in early life - auto-immune condition: immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas type II: - lifestyle related disease - develops over time - either your body isn't able to produce sufficient insulin because you're consuming too much sugar OR the insulin you create isn't working properly type III? - alteration of insulin metabolism in brain - common in Alzheimer's

Answer 352

1. body can't produce enough insulin because you're consuming too much sugar 2. the insulin being produced by your body isn't working properly

Answer 353

atop the kidneys

Answer 354

1. adrenal cortex 2. adrenal medulla

Answer 355

has distinct cellular zones with diff functional roles 1. zona glomerulosa (outside) 2. zona fasciculata (middle) 3. zona reticularis (inside)

Answer 356

marked by WHORLS of epithelial cells aldosterone

Answer 357

epithelial cells are organized in ORDERLY BANDS glucocorticoid

Answer 358

epithelial cells are DISORGANIZED sex steroid hormones

Answer 359

made up of CHROMAFFIN CELLS in embryonic development: these cells = derived from primitive neural tissue after birth they work as part of the ANS respond to neural signals

Answer 360

make up the adrenal medulla derived from embryonic primitive neural tissue post-birth: work as part of ANS respond to neural signals that come from the spinal cord

Answer 361

3 monoamine hormones

Answer 362

1. epinephrine 2. norepinephrine 3. dopamine

Answer 363

enkephalins

Answer 364

epinephrine and norepinephrine and because chromaffin tissue: receives neural signals so quite fast

Answer 365

hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis

Answer 366

through innervations to spinal cord short term effects - fast

Answer 367

the blood longer term effects - more prolonged

Answer 368

1. aldosterone 2. glucocorticoid 3. sex steroid hormones

Answer 369

(these functions are usually compartmentalized) 1. production of GAMETES (sperm or eggs) 2. production of HORMONES

Answer 370

steroid hormones

Answer 371

gamete development development of secondary sex characteristics also mediate behaviours necessary to bring sperm and eggs together

Answer 372

tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary these are called gonadotropins

Answer 373

tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary regulate gonad function

Answer 374

hypothalamic pituitary gonad axis

Answer 375

bilateral glands located in most mammals in an external sac called the scrotum seminiferous tubules

Answer 376

long, convoluted tubes where sperm cells undergo various stages of maturation (spermatogenesis)

Answer 377

located along basement membrane of seminiferous tubules involved in spermatogenesis facilitate progression of germ cells to spermatozoa via direct contact and by controlling environmental milieu within seminiferous tubules

Answer 378

interstitial cells between seminiferous tubules in the testes produce androgens/testosterone

Answer 379

in response to the luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary

Answer 380

both work in testes sertoli: aid spermatogenesis leydig: produce androgens in response to LH

Answer 381

1. paired glands located in dorsal part of abdominal cavity, normally below kidneys 2. compartmentalized (diff parts have diff functions) 3. within fetal ovary are germinal epithelia - eventually develop into primordial follicles - infant ovaries contain about 500 000 immature follicles - approx 400 eggs (ova) are ovulated by women between puberty and menopause 4. three functional units: - follicles - corpora lutea - stroma

Answer 382

dorsal part of the abdominal cavity normally below the kidneys

Answer 383

primordial follicles

Answer 384

about 500 000

Answer 385

1. follicles 2. corpora lutea 3. stroma

Answer 386

the continual degeneration of follicles throughout life no additional gametes are formed postnatally

Answer 387

noendocrine connective tissue of endocrine glands

Answer 388

epithelial cell-lined sacs that contain an egg

Answer 389

haploid female gamete contained in folliclees

Answer 390

endocrine structures that form from remnants of ovarian follicles after the egg is released secrete progestins

Answer 391

corpora lutea

Answer 392

support the uterine lining in prep for blastocyst implantation

Answer 393

an immature egg

Answer 394

layer of epithelial cells called GRANULOSA cells

Answer 395

epithelial cells that surround the ovocyte

Answer 396

two peptide hormones 1. inhibin 2. activin these hormones regulate hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Answer 397

surround granulosa cells during follicular maturation these cells participate in estrogen synthesis

Answer 398

space between ovum and surrounding epithelial cells filled with fluid prior to ovulation

Answer 399

tertiary follicle

Answer 400

called the follicular fluid is rich in steroid hormones

Answer 401

Graafian follicle

Answer 402

after ovum release both granulosa cells of the erupted follicle and the surrounding thecal cells UNDERGO RAPID MITOSIS and CAPILLARIES GENERATED FROM THE THECAL CELLS VASCULARIZE THE GRANULOSA CELLS

Answer 403

from the rapid mitosis that occurs in the granulosa and thecal cells following ovum release and from the vascularization of the granulosa cells by the capillaries generated from the thecal cells

Answer 404

corpus luteum persists for some time on surface of ovary produce another class of important sex steroid hormones: progestins

Answer 405

important sex steroid hormones produced by the corpus luteum after ovum release

Answer 406

multiple layer of epithelial cells that surrounds the follicle

Answer 407

1. temporary endocrine organ that develops in uterus during mammal pregnancy - forms from tissues derived from blastocyst and maternal uterus 2. important in maintaining nutritional, respiratory, and excretory functions for fetus 3. source of several steroid and peptide hormones that affect mother and offspring 4. pregnancy tests measure human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone produced by rudimentary placenta that forms right after blastocyst implantation

Answer 408

tissues derived from: 1. blastocyst 2. maternal uterus

Answer 409

1. nutritional functions 2. respiratory functions 3. excretory functions

Answer 410

steroid and peptide hormones mother and the offspring

Answer 411

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) ^hormone produced by rudimentary placenta that forms immediately after blastocyst implantation

Answer 412

cluster of dividing cells made by a fertilized egg early stage of the embryo

Answer 413

not produced by placenta BUT by the corpora lutea during pregnancy

Answer 414

softens the estrogen-primed PELVIC LIGAMENTS to allow enough stretch for the passage of large head of fetus through the pelvis

Answer 415

stimulate the: - gonadal - mammary - adrenal - thyroid functions

Answer 416

1. chorionic gonadotropins (CG) 2. chorionic somatomammotrophin (CS, aka palcental lactogen) 3. chorionic corticotropin (CC) 4. chorionic thyrotropin (CT)

Answer 417

hCG 1. maintains corpora luteal function (and progesterone secretion) during pregnancy 2. part of regulatory system that inhibits ovulation during pregnancy

Answer 418

then it's produced in the placenta

Answer 419

chorionic gonadotropin hCG

Answer 420

1. endocrine cells of gastrointestinal tract = scattered throughout gut - in a "primitive organization" 2. gastrointestinal hormones regulate cells and organs in which they're produced - intracrine/autocrine chemical mediation is usually considered a more primitive mechanism that endocrine mediation 3. main hormones: secretin, cholecystokinin, ghrelin - these hormones = released into circulation and act to supplement the actions of the ANS during digestion

Answer 421

scattered around the gut in what is called a PRIMITIVE ORGANIZATION

Answer 422

intracrine/autocrine chemical mediation these hormones regulate the cells and organs in which they are produced

Answer 423

small peptide of 27 amino acids release of secretin by duodenal mucosa = stimulated by passage of food into small intestine stimulates pancreas to produce secretions which aid in digestion

Answer 424

duodenal mucosa release is stimulated by passage of food into small intestine

Answer 425

it stimulates the pancreas to produce secretions which aid in digestion - stimulation of hepatic (liver) tissue - pepsin secretion - inhibition of gastrointestinal (GI) tract movement and gastric acid secretion

Answer 426

hormone released by lining of small intestine that may be involved in satiation of food intake causes exocrine pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes CKK also causes gallbladder to contract/release bile

Answer 427

lining of the small intestine

Answer 428

secrete digestive enzymes

Answer 429

contract/release bile

Answer 430

in the brain here it functions as a neurotransmitter or nueromodulator

Answer 431

peptide hormone secreted by mucous layer of stomach induces secretion of water and electrolytes by stomach, pancreas, liver induces secretion of enzymes by stomach and pancreas produced in antral glands of stomach

Answer 432

mucous layer of the stomach

Answer 433

induces secretion of: 1. water and electrolytes by the stomach, pancreas and liver 2. enzymes by the stomach and pancreas

Answer 434

antral glands of the stomach

Answer 435

stimulate GHRH from anterior pituitary

Answer 436

endocrine cells in the stomach

Answer 437

was done to see if it would enhance GH secretion food intake and fat deposition increased

Answer 438

ate about 30% more food than individuals not given the hormone concentrations of ghrelin increased to peak levels prior to each meal (~80% increase) and fell dramatically after the meal

Answer 439

1. regulation by the physiological by-products generated in response to their actions (thermostat) 2. regulation by the stimulatory or inhibitory effects of other hormones

Answer 440

ie. parathyroid hormone is released when blood levels of calcium decrease when the action of the hormone has raised concentration of blood calcium to an optimal level, parathyroid hormone secretion stops thermostat analogy

Answer 441

within this form of control, one or more hormones in a regulatory chain may be involved in hormonal regulation ie. GnRH is regulated by a multiple chain of negative feedback

Answer 442

part of hormonal regulation a regulatory system that tends to STABILIZE a process when its effects are pronounced by REDUCING ITS RATE/OUTPUT

Answer 443

part of hormonal regulation a regulatory process that tends to ACCELERATE an ongoing process by INCREASING PRODUCTION in response to the end product generally less frequent - must be tightly controlled ie. short term stress response can't be let go on for too long

Answer 444

yes through up-regulation or down-regulation

Answer 445

process similar to positive feedback hormone causes INCREASE in production of RECEPTORS for that hormone

Answer 446

overproduction of a hormone can cause occupation or REDUCE the number of hormone RECEPTORS

Answer 447

hormonal messages/signals evoke intracellular responses via SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION essentially, the chemical hormonal message is transformed into intracellular events that ultimately affect cell function

Answer 448

the way in which hormonal messages/signals evoke intracellular responses

Answer 449

sequence of events that begins with a hormone binding to its receptor and ends with the ultimate response in a target cell

Answer 450

steroid hormone receptors = located inside cells (cytosol or nucleus) steroids = lipid soluble, so can penetrate cell membrane to bind with these intracellular receptors when the receptors bind to a specific steroid/thyroid hormone, they migrate to nucleus here, they regulate gene transcription

Answer 451

protein/peptide hormone receptors = embedded in cell membrane have at least three domains with specific functions 1. extracellular domain (binds to hormone to form hormone-receptor complex) 2. transmembrane domain 3. cytoplasmic/intra-cellular domain (inside cells, often transmits a signal)

Answer 452

1. intrinsic enzymatic activity - have enzymes in the cytoplasmic domain that phosphorylate/activate intracellular proteins 2. require a second messenger - these receptors are coupled to G proteins - G proteins are activated when the appropriate hormone binds to the receptor - this part of the activated G protein activates an effector protein that converts thousands of reactants to products, amplifying action within the cell

Answer 453

several ways to answer this because there are different levels of sexual determination each step of mammalian sexual development = a different step in a cascade of events

Answer 454

some species don't have different sexes: they reproduce asexually ie. white spotted bamboo shark but asexual reproduction results in less genetic diversity so, SEXUAL REPRODUCTION PROVIDES GENETIC VARIABILITY THAT ENHANCES EVOLUTIONARY FLEXIBILITY through the separation of haploid pairs in parents and their recombination in offspring combo of genetic info = more flexibility

Answer 455

mating system either MONOGAMOUS or POLYGAMOUS sex differences = reduced in monogamous species ie. prairie voles are monogamous: virtually impossible to tell male and females apart ie. elk are polygamous: males and females are readily distinguishable

Answer 456

polygamous

Answer 457

males compete against one another to win over female mates male bowerbirds have lots of different mating partners, and females raise offspring alone so females must choose their mate wisely males impress them by building colourful, elaborate bowers

Answer 458

dimorphism amplifies

Answer 459

both NATURE and NURTURE reflect role of biology and environment (socialization) ie. boys are more likely to play in large groups, rough and tumble activities ie. girls are more likely to play in twos and threes, more verbal communication

Answer 460

1. sex determination occurs in various steps 2. sexual reproduction favours evolutionary flexibility by providing genetic variability 3. possibly because of the mating system related to sexual reproduction, several behaviours are sexually dimorphic 4. sexually dimorphic behaviours are a product of nature and nurture

Answer 461

1. chromosomal sex 2. gonadal sex 3. hormonal sex 4. morphological sex 5. behavioural sex each level affects the next one

Answer 462

chromosomal sex

Answer 463

defined during fertilization chromosomal sex of the child = determined by whether the sperm contributes with an X or a Y chromosome (female gametes always contributes an X chromosome) XX: female XY: male

Answer 464

gonadal sex

Answer 465

testes or ovaries each embryonic individual (regardless of chromosomal sex) develops a thickening called the GERMINAL RIDGE this is a bipotential primordial gonad expression of SRY gene (found on Y chromosome) produces testis determination factor (TDF)

Answer 466

on the ventromedial surface of each protokidney

Answer 467

this is what the thickening of the germinal ridge gives way to bipotential: can either turn into ovaries or testes depends on whether or not there is SRY gene

Answer 468

found on the Y chromosome produces TDF (testis determination factor)

Answer 469

presence: will produce TESTIS DETERMINATION FACTOR (TDF) absence: no testis determination factor

Answer 470

produced by the SRY gene

Answer 471

steroidogenic factor 1 protein in combination with TDF, produces a transcription factor this transcription factor regulates expression of SOX9 gene

Answer 472

transcription factor this transcription factor regulates expression of SOX9 gene

Answer 473

development of the middle of the germinal ridge this forms the testis

Answer 474

SRY gene TDF SF-1 transcription factor SOX9

Answer 475

the outer part of the germinal ridge develops and ovary forms

Answer 476

if present: middle of the germinal ridge develops (into testis) if absent: outer part of germinal ridge develops (into ovaries)

Answer 477

Wnt4 (wingless-related MMTV integration site 4) gene ovarian development

Answer 478

used to be thought that mere absence of SRY and SOX9 would cause female development (ovaries) but turns out there is another gene that probably must be present (Wnt4 gene)

Answer 479

hormonal secretions

Answer 480

hormonal secretions from the developing gonads determine whether the individual develops in a male or female manner mammalian embryonic testes produce ANDROGENS embryonic ovaries of mammals don't secrete high concentrations of hormones in presence of ovaries or in complete absence of any gonads, the development follows female pathway

Answer 481

male development female development

Answer 482

high concentrations of hormones

Answer 483

50 chromosomal genes were different between males and females even at 20.5 days post-conception wayyyy before gonads were developed suggests that sex genes = mediated by chromosomes, not gonads

Answer 484

again, suggests that chromosomes are mediating sex to certain degree independently from gonads

Answer 485

morphological sex

Answer 486

Mullerian (female) and Wolffian (male) duct systems are normally BOTH PRESENT early in embryonic development dual anlagen

Answer 487

rudimentary basis of accessory sex organs apparatus for both male and female accessory organs ("dual") both Wolffian and Mullerian

Answer 488

fallopian tubes uterus upper vagina and the Wolffian ducts regress

Answer 489

seminal vesicles vas deferens Mullerian system regresses

Answer 490

two products from the embryonic testes 1. testosterone 2. Mullerian inhibitory hormone (MIH)

Answer 491

testosterone: stimulates Wolffian duct development (masculinization) MIH: causes regression of the Mullerian duct system (defeminization)

Answer 492

1. urethral groove fuses 2. genital tubercle develops into penis 3. genital folds fuse into scrotum

Answer 493

1. clitoris develops from genital tubercle 2. vaginal labia develops from genital folds

Answer 494

no, they're undifferentiated 1. genital tubercle 2. urogenital sinus 3. anal fold

Answer 495

male: penis, scrotum female: clitoris, labia

Answer 496

gonadal steroid hormones

Answer 497

castrated males stop mounting behaviour but testosterone replacement therapy restores mounting behaviour to original levels

Answer 498

female: lordosis male: mounting

Answer 499

no, it does not suggests that at some point in development, female rats lose potential to exhibit male-typical behaviour

Answer 500

Charles Phoenix wanted to know at what point differentiation occurs studied effects of PRENATAL and EARLY POSTNATAL androgen treatment on guinea pigs on female reproductive behaviour (mounting/lordosis) did this by observing and manipulating mating behaviour

Answer 501

PHASE 1: - pregnant guinea pig was injected with testosterone - some received larger doses than others

Answer 502

possessed external genitalia indistinguishable from those of brothers/typical males

Answer 503

no visible changes to external genitalia referred to as "unmodified females"

Answer 504

looked at the adult offspring 1. smaller dose prenatal testosterone exposed females and males 2. bigger dose prenatal testosterone exposed females and males 3. control females and males

Answer 505

all 3 groups were: 1. gonadectomized 2. injected with estrogen and progesterone (to stimulate female sexual behaviour) 3. paired with male guinea pig 4. some time later, were all injected with androgens (to stimulate male sexual behaviour) 5. paired with female guinea pig

Answer 506

androgens given to guinea pigs prenatally 1. decreased tendency of both experimental groups of females to display lordosis in adulthood 2. increased tendency of both experimental groups of females to display mounting behaviour in response to testosterone therapy 3. caused no deleterious effects on mounting behaviour or other masculine behavioural patterns in males treated

Answer 507

clear distinction can be made between PRENATAL ACTION of HORMONES in causing differentiation/ORGANIZATION of neural substrates for behaviour and the actions of HORMONES in ADULTHOOD in causing ACTIVATION of these hormones organization - activation hypothesis

Answer 508

basis for the organizational/activational hypothesis of sexually dimorphic behaviours

Answer 509

1. sex hormones act during prenatal stage to permanently (irreversibly) organize the nervous system in a sex-specific manner 2. during adult life, the same hormones have activation effects

Answer 510

cyclic: present in females - females display cycles of mating behaviour tonic: present in males - males display continuous willingness to mate

Answer 511

females: - pulsatile release - then negative feedback is broken - big increase of LH and FSH secretion - after ovulation, neg feedback returns males: - steady pulsatile release

Answer 512

gonadotropins secreted from the anterior pituitary GnRH --> LH --> gonadal function

Answer 513

testis and ovaries testis: testosterone ovaries: estrogen and progesterone

Answer 514

cyclical basis females escape the negative feedback loop on a cyclical basis

Answer 515

1. females escape negative feedback loop on cyclical basis 2. estrogen levels increase 3. surge of GnRH is released in response to rising estrogen levels 4. GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release surges of LH and FSH 5. after ovulation, negative feedback mechanisms are engaged

Answer 516

both males and females have this increasing gonadal steroid concentrations feed back to the gonads, anterior pituitary and hypothalamus this slows secretion of GnRH, gonadotropins and gonadal steroids

Answer 517

a lot happens in the process of sexual differentiation because it's a complicated process high potential for atypical development

Answer 518

SRY gene is located on the short arm of the Y chromosome this gene causes male gonadal development

Answer 519

leads to incomplete gonadal differentiation

Answer 520

male mice develop ovaries

Answer 521

female mice develop testes

Answer 522

rare disorder failure of sex glands (testis or ovaries) to develop in XY individuals that lack SRY gene without intervention, won't experience puberty external female genitalia, but no menstruation gonads = functionless

Answer 523

a disorder of sex development (DSD) DSDs encompass any disorder in which chromosomal, gonadal or anatomic sex development is atypical

Answer 524

hormone replacement therapy

Answer 525

even if individual is XY, testosterone and MIH must be secreted at the correct time if MIH isn't secreted at right time, the Mullerian syndrome will develop depending on hormonal secretion, possible for both systems or for neither to develop

Answer 526

general term used for variety of conditions in which a person is born with reproductive/sexual anatomy that doesn't fit the typical definitions of male or female ie. discrepancies between external genitalia and internal sexual organs ie. when both systems develop in a single individual (can be separate or combined)

Answer 527

no, although it may signal underlying metabolic concern intersex individuals aren't in need of medical treatment although it used to be considered one - "normalization" srugery

Answer 528

two continuum which intersect 1. masculinization to de-masculinization 2. feminization to de-feminization potential for multiple different outcomes

Answer 529

scoring system for grading degrees of genital masculinization starts at a 0: unvirilized female ends at 5: completely virilized female

Answer 530

5 on the Prader scale female who appears externally male at birth with the labial/scrotal sac empty since there are no testicals

Answer 531

androgens and androgenic metabolites

Answer 532

5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) testosterone is converted to DHT by an enzyme

Answer 533

development of male external genitalia

Answer 534

genetic males (XY) with this deficiency are born with: 1. ambiguous genitalia 2. small, undescended testes 3. usually considered females at birth, reared as females 4. at puberty, testosterone masculinizes the body

Answer 535

at puberty, testosterone masculinizes the body 1. male-typical musculature 2. axillary hair growth 3. genitalia develop to resemble male-typical penis and scrotum

Answer 536

1. congenital condition 2. individuals LACK an X chromosome (XO) or DAMAGE to second X (or Y) chromosome 3. have female external appearance 4. but ovarian development = usually limited 5. don't attain puberty without medical attention

Answer 537

caused by lack of 21-HYDROXYLASE enzyme leads to overproduction of ADRENAL ANDROGENS - progesterone also needs 21-hydroxylase in order to create other important hormones

Answer 538

causes moderate/sever masculinization

Answer 539

functional androgen receptors are absent XY individuals born with androgen insensitivity syndrome have normal-appearing female external genitalia but vagina is oftenshort and they're sterile are sexed and reared as girls

Answer 540

girls but vagina is short and no menstruation occurs (they're sterile)

Answer 541

at adolescence when menstruation fails to occur

Answer 542

1. Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) 2. XYY 3. XXX

Answer 543

XXY extra X chromosome presence of Y chromosome = sufficient for SRY gene to be activated and for masculinization to occur usually sterile because of reduced sperm production often severe learning disabilities

Answer 544

males at birth

Answer 545

variation in the androgen receptor

Answer 546

expands the variables that influence sex differences: 1. genes 2. hormones 3. ENVIRONMENT expands the amount of time in which organization effects take place 1. extend to pre-pubertal period essentially, the modern theory sees things as much less fixed (more variables are at work and time period in which they have effects are longer)

Answer 547

are often greater differences in behaviour BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SEX than between individuals of the opposite sex considerable overlap between the sexes

Answer 548

what roles society expects genders to perform

Answer 549

internal and personal process by which individuals come to perceive themselves what they understand their own gender to be binary, non-binary and plural

Answer 550

enduring pattern of: - emotional - romantic - and/or sexual attractions that individuals feel towards people of the same and/or opposite sex