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Psyc 342 > epigenetics, neuroalterations and mental health > Flashcards

epigenetics, neuroalterations and mental health Flashcards

1
Q

lecture outline

A
  1. review of early life adversity and hormonal alterations
  2. review of genomic transcription and translation events
  3. epigenetics and its relation to Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Hypothesis
  4. psychopathology and hormonal regulation
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2
Q

for something to be considered stressful, individuals must perceive it as…

A

aversive

but humans are exposed to different circumstances that aren’t necessarily perceived as stressful BUT that can have DEREGULATORY effects on physiological responses that aim to restore homeostasis

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3
Q

adversity (or exposure to adversities) has been used to…

A

better capture the DEVELOPMENTAL RISKS involved in unhealthy environments

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4
Q

adversity can be conceived as…

A
  1. exposure to harmful/threatening stimuli
  2. absence of stimulation needed for typical development
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5
Q

dimensional approach to childhood adversity - the dimensions

A

low to high DEPRIVATION

low to high THREAT

ie. NEGLECT is low threat high deprivation
ie. PHYSICAL ABUSE is high threat low deprivation

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6
Q

Romania’s tragic example of negligence

A

no money to support family - parents abandoned children

gov created orphanages to house them

employees = instructed to show no affection to babies

ignored their cries until they learned they wouldn’t get them attention

all slept in metal cradles

no loving attention/nurturing

lots of physical abuse

filthy conditions

“you were basically treated like an animal”

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7
Q

The Bucharest Project setup

A

randomized controlled trial of FOSTER CARE as alternative to institutional rearing for abandoned children

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8
Q

The Bucharest Project measures

A

changes in ANS and HPA axis measures during 3 tasks

2 social stressors (Trier Social Stress Test) which includes preparation, speech and math portions

nonsocial stressor (frustration task)

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9
Q

The Bucharest Project 3 groups

A
  1. deprived care as usual
  2. high quality foster care intervention
  3. typically developing Romanian

orphans were assigned to intervention groups

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10
Q

The Bucharest Project - timing of placement and HPA axis reactivity

A

children placed in appropriate care earlier had an ENHANCED CORTISOL RESPONSE

placement at 24 months

the longer they stayed in foster care, the more blunting of the cortisol response (dysfunctional HPA axis)

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11
Q

The Bucharest Project - earlier age of placement also predicted greater _____ engagement

A

vagal

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12
Q

The Bucharest Project main finding on timing of placement

A

patterns among children placed earlier in appropriate care…

more closely resembled those in typically developing children

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13
Q

The Bucharest Project found that those in regular orphanages had 2 things

A
  1. generally high levels of cortisol throughout the day
  2. blunted cortisol response
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14
Q

RSA

A

respiratory sinus arrythmia

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15
Q

respiratory sinus arrythmia

A

variation in heart rate that occurs during each breathing cycle

the heart rate increases when breathing in and decreases when breathing out

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16
Q

what’s a MORE ADAPTIVE RSA response?

A

a more de-synchronous relationship between heartbeat and breathing

if stress response is blunted, heart rate and breathing are more synchronous

which is less adaptive

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17
Q

transcription factor

A

specific DNA sequences that proteins/hormone complexes bind to

play crucial role in regulating the transcription of the gene

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18
Q

promoter

A

specific sequence of DNA located upstream of a gene

contains binding sites for transcription factors and RNA polymerase

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19
Q

hormones with genetic effects probably act as…

A

transcription factors

transcription factor facilitates the enzyme RNA polymerase

which synthesizes the RNA

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20
Q

if you observe an increase in RNA molecules, it means…

A

there’s an active gene

quantifying mRNA is a way of inferring a gene is active

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21
Q

what enzyme is responsible for synthesizing the RNA molecule from a DNA template?

A

RNA polymerase

this happens during transcription

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22
Q

where does RNA polymerase bind?

A

promoter region of a gene

with assistance of transcription factors

begins to synthesize RNA molecule complementary to the DNA template

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23
Q

where does the mature mRNA go?

A

mature mRNA moves from NUCLEUS to CYTOPLASM

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24
Q

what happens to the mRNA once in the cytoplasm?

A

translation

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25
Q

translation is carried out by…

A

ribosomes

which are composed of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

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26
Q

translation - very basic

A

translating mRNA into PROTEINS

mRNA molecule binds to a ribosome

process of decoding its sequence to produce a protein begins

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27
Q

usually neurons produce just one…

A

neurotransmitter type

ie. dopaminergic, cholinergic

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28
Q

epigenetics studies…

A

how behaviours and the environment can cause changes that affect the WAY YOUR GENES WORK

genetic sequence is UNCHANGED

but the environment PHYSICALLY MODIFIES the functioning of the DNA

this MODIFIES GENE EXPRESSION

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29
Q

epigenetic mechanisms are affected by…

A
  1. development (in utero, childhood)
  2. environmental chemicals
  3. drugs
  4. ageing
  5. diet
  6. stress exposure
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30
Q

epigenetic changes affect what and don’t affect what?

A

changes in gene activity/function aren’t associated with any change in the DNA sequence itself

but gene expression is modified

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31
Q

2 most common forms of epigenetic mechanisms

A

DNA methylation

histone modifications

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32
Q

2 types of histone modifications

A
  1. acetylation
  2. deacetylation
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33
Q

acetylation versus deacetylation

A

ACETYLATION: unfold DNA

DEACETYLATION: coiling of DNA

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34
Q

histones make DNA more or less…

A

accessible

the more tightly packed the DNA, the less accessible

the less tightly coiled, the easier to access

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35
Q

histone modification can alter…

A

how the DNA is folded

acetylation: unfolds it

deacetylation: coils it

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36
Q

DNA methylation

A

transfer of a methyl group to the 5th carbon in a cytosine nucleobase (C)

transcription factor can’t access the promoter region of the gene - physical barrier

results in lower levels of gene expression

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37
Q

what is needed for DNA methylation to occur?

A

DNA methylation is catalyzed by a family of DNA methyltransferases (Dnmts)

Dnmts transfer the methyl groups to cytosine base in the DNA strand

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38
Q

which can you measure more precisely? DNA methylation or histone modification?

A

DNA methylation

because it’s easier to access the promoter region of a specific gene

than it is to mess with the individual histones of a gene

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39
Q

methylation of DNA and histones causes…

A

nucleosomes to pack tightly together

transcription factors cannot bind to the DNA

and genes cannot be expressed

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40
Q

epigenome

A

epigenetic alterations can be passed down from parents through the genome

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41
Q

DoHaD

A

Developmental Origins of Health and Disease Hypothesis

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42
Q

DoHaD proposes that…

A

environmental exposures during critical periods of prenatal and early postnatal development can influence long term health outcomes

early life exposures may alter developmental PATHWAYS, leading to an increased risk of chronic diseases

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43
Q

DoHad - environmental exposures in early life can alter pathways and lead to…

A

increased risk of chronic diseases

obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders

later in life

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44
Q

Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study setup

A

part of DoHaD

conducted after WW2, it investigated long-term health effects of prenatal famine exposure

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45
Q

Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study results

A

findings revealed that individuals exposed to famine during early gestation…

had higher rates of:
a) obesity
b) cardiovascular disease
c) psychiatric affective disorders

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46
Q

what’s wrong with this quote: “the new science of epigenetics reveals how the choices you make can change your genes - and those of your kids”

A

they don’t change your genes

they change your gene FUNCTIONING/EXPRESSION

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47
Q

gametogenesis

A

process of forming sperm and eggs cells

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48
Q

what occurs during gametogenesis

A

broadly, the formation of sperm and egg cells

also EXTENSIVE EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING in male and female germ cells

this reprogramming includes ERASURE of numerous DNA methylation marks and histone modifications

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49
Q

what are often erased during gametogenesis? however…

A

DNA methylation marks

histone modifications

certain parts of the genome escape the reprogramming!

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50
Q

parts of genome that escape reprogramming during gametogenesis

A

imprinting control regions

they MAINTAIN their PARENTAL METHYLATION PATTERNS

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51
Q

imprinting control regions

A

part of the genome that aren’t reprogrammed during gametogenesis

histone modifications and DNA methylation from parent remain

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52
Q

imprinting control regions allow for the transmission of…

A

environmentally induced changes in DNA methylation to subsequent generations

potentially impacts the PHENOTYPE and DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY of offspring

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53
Q

agouti mice study is a…

A

classical study in epigenetics

but this isn’t about neuroscience

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54
Q

agouti mice carry a…

A

mutation in the agouti gene

results in OVER-EXPRESSION of agouti protein

as a result, agouti mice exhibit traits like OBESITY, HYPERPHAGIA, and ABNORMAL COAT COLOUR

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55
Q

in agouti mutant mice…

A

the agouti gene is constantly turned “on”

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56
Q

phenotype characteristics of agouti mice

A

yellow coats

obese

susceptible to heart disease and diabetes

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57
Q

what did the study do with the agouti mice?

A

gave agouti mice dams DIETARY METHYL SUPPLEMENTATION

extra folic acid, vitamin B, choline, betaine

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58
Q

what did the methyl supplementation in agouti dams do? how?

A

altered the phenotype of offspring

via increased CpG methylation

offspring show INACTIVATION OF THE PROBLEMATIC GENE

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59
Q

agouti mice: higher DNA methylation levels means…

A

healthier/normal

more brown coats (phenotype) and healthy outcomes

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60
Q

agouti mice study: variations in the phenotype map on to…

A

variations in the gene

methylation patterns are associated with deactivation of the agouti gene

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61
Q

what study inaugurated the field of neuroscience epigenetics?

A

poor versus good maternal care in mice

differences have epigenetic effects on glucocorticoid receptors

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62
Q

maternal care and epigenetics of glucocorticoid receptors

A

specific types of maternal care evoke changes in:

a) DNA methylation
b) chromatin structure

results in RELAXED HISTONE PROTEINS

and therefore INCREASED GR gene expression

a good thing: you want high amounts of glucocorticoid receptors they are what control negative feedback (efficient stress response)

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63
Q

pathway: maternal care and epigenetics of glucocorticoid receptors

A

changes in DNA methylation/chromatin structure

>

relaxed histone proteins (less coiled)

>

increased GR gene expression

this is good - need enough GR in order to have efficient stress response

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64
Q

maternal care leads to epigenetic effects of glucocorticoid receptors: is this permanent?

A

these changes emerged in early life

but could be REVERSED by CROSS-FOSTERING to mothers who displayed low levels of licking/grooming and arched-back nursing

and these changes persisted into adulthood

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65
Q

maternal care and HPA axis

A

maternal care is important for HPA axis regulation

feedback mechanisms are altered if appropriate nurture is absent

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66
Q

maternal care classical epigenetic study: poor maternal care

A

LOW LICKING and GROOMING

leads to a methylated promoter

transcription factor struggles to bind to GR gene promoter

impedes glucocorticoid receptor expression

results in:
a) high corticosterone levels
b) high anxiety
c) low licking and grooming

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67
Q

maternal care classical epigenetic study:good maternal care

A

HIGH LICKING and GROOMING

  1. serotonin is released
  2. histone acetylase is activated
  3. histone demethylation

transcription factor can now bind to promoter of GR gene

GR expression

results in:
a) low corticosterone levels
b) low anxiety
c) high licking and grooming

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68
Q

maternal care epigenetic classical study: net result of these actions…

A

is a GR gene that’s more readily accepting of the NGF1-A transcription factor

leads to more GRs in the hippocampus of the offspring

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69
Q

maternal care epigenetic classical study: methylation of GR in hippocampus is higher for which group?

A

poor care group

bad because if you don’t have enough GR, not enough negative feedback to attain an efficient stress response

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70
Q

in humans, childhood abuse alters…

A

HPA stress response

increases risk of suicide

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71
Q

how can we translate epigenetic findings from animal studies into humans?

A

examine post-mortem brains

tissue samples from donated brains give direct access to cells, proteins and genes potentially implicated in the disease

Douglas Bell Canada Brain Bank

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72
Q

Douglas Bell Canada Brain Bank

A

largest brain bank in Canada

coordinates brain donation process

prepares and stores brain specimens

distributes samples to researchers

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73
Q

maternal care classical epigenetic study: good maternal care resulted in an increase of what transcription factor?

A

NGF1-A

expressed in the hippocampus

leads to more GRs in the hippocampus of the offspring = good stress response (negative feedback)

CONTRASTINGLY, in poor care offspring, methylation of glucocorticoid receptors occurs = poor stress response

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74
Q

what did they examine in the study about epigenetic effects of childhood abuse? how did they get access to this?

A

epigenetic differences in a neuron-specific GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR (NR3C1) PROMOTER

used postmortem hippocampus

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75
Q

postmortem tissue from what 3 sources? epigenetic effects of childhood abuse study

A
  1. suicide victims with history of childhood abuse
  2. suicide victims with no childhood abuse
  3. controls
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76
Q

epigenetic effects of childhood abuse study: findings

A
  1. decreased levels of glucocorticoid receptor mRNA
  2. mRNA transcripts bearing the glucocorticoid receptor 1 splice variant
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77
Q

epigenetic effects of childhood abuse study: in those who committed suicide AND who were abused in childhood

A

INCREASED CYTOSINE METHYLATION OF AN NR3C1 PROMOTER

results in less glucocorticoid receptors and therefore a less effective stress response

only in the suicide + abused group

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78
Q

following major early stress such as child abuse and neglect, there’s low…

A

low TRANSCRIPTION of functional receptor networks

this impedes negative feedback of HPA axis

results in chronically high levels of circulating cortisol

correlates with increased lifelong risk for physical/mental health disorders (esp anxiety and depression)

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79
Q

what results in chronically high levels of circulating cortisol?

A

low transcription of functional receptor networks

which impedes negative feedback of HPA axis

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80
Q

what is increased methylation of promoter 1F CpG sites associated with?

A
  1. higher vulnerability to co-occurring internalizing symptoms
  2. higher morning cortisol
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81
Q

what does prenatal stress do to the brain?

A

alters the STRUCTURE

alters the FUNCTION

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82
Q

brain areas particularly affected by prenatal stress

A

hippocampus

amygdala

PFC

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83
Q

specific ways in which the brain’s structure and function are affected by prenatal stress

A
  1. reduced neurogenesis
  2. retraction of the dendrites of hippocampal and cortical neurons
  3. physical expansion of dendrites in amygdala
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84
Q

sex-specific effects: elevated cortisol values during early pregnancy were associated with…

A
  1. increased right amygdalar development
  2. poor emotional development

in GIRLS, but not boys, before puberty

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85
Q

2 things to know about the specificities in the effects of stress

A
  1. TIMING matters
  2. NOT ONLY CORTISOL is involved

a) other alterations play a role in development/function of HPA axis

b) ie. touch is important in HPA axis development

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86
Q

levels of what enzyme sharply reduce immediately after separation of pups and mother?

A

ornithine decarboxylase

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87
Q

ornithine decarboxylase

A

levels sharply drop after pup-mother separation

it’s the first enzyme required in the synthesis of polyamides

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88
Q

polyamides

A

synthesized by the enzyme ornithine decarboxylas

involved in regulation of PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

and hence TISSUE GROWTH

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89
Q

if ornithine decarboxylase reduces…

A

then there is less synthesis of polyamides

and therefore less protein synthesis

and therefore LESS TISSUE GROWTH

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90
Q

pathway from ornithine decarboxylase to tissue growth

A

pup-mother contact

>

ornithine decarboxylase

>

polyamide synthesis

>

regulation of protein synthesis

>

tissue growth

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91
Q

rapid decline in ornithine decarboxylase concentrations that result from pup-mother separation cannot be prevented by…

A

placement of the pups with an ANESTHETIZED MOTHER that continued to lactate

shows that INTERACTION IS NEEDED

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92
Q

what is shown by the fact placing pups with anesthetized (but still lactating) mother doesn’t prevent ornithine decarboxylase decline?

A

interaction is required

implication: interaction is needed for proper tissue growth

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93
Q

GH, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, blood concentrations of corticosterone: what happened to their levels after maternal separation?

A

GH: decreased in pups

prolactin and thyroid-stimulating hormone: didn’t decrease

blood corticosterone: increased

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94
Q

what happened to pups that were brushed in a way that approximated the tongue movements of the dam?

A

this PREVENTED the reduction in ornithine decarboxylase

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95
Q

what prevented the reduction in ornithine decarboxylase in pups?

A

brushing them in a way that approximated the tongue movements of the dam

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96
Q

what does GH regulate?

A

OCD (ornithine decarboxylase) activity in the brain and other tissues

after GH is secreted from anterior pituitary gland, it binds (along with types of somatomedins) to receptors on surface of cells

cells that bind GH are stimulated to grow and divide

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97
Q

what happens after GH is secreted from the anterior pituaitary?

A

binds to receptors on surface of cells

cells that bind GH are stimulated to grow/divide

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98
Q

physiological mechanisms by which tactile stimuli increase GH secretion from the anterior pituitary

A

are not yet known

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99
Q

practical applications of findings that tactile stimuli increase GH secretion from anterior pituitary

A

increasing handling of premature infants

stimulates growth and development

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100
Q

in mice with high maternal licking and grooming…

A

offspring show adaptive stress responses

and normal growth

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101
Q

Harlow surrogate mother experiment

A

Rhesus monkey infants were provided with two surrogate mothers

one was made of a wire frame, had a nipple protruding from midsection and gave milk to infant

the other provided no nutrition but her wire frame was covered with a soft material to which infant could obtain contact comfort

in presence of strange toy, infants RELY ON THE COMFORT MOM

102
Q

T/F: young humans require tactile stimulation provided by physical contact with caregiver for normal somatic growth/development

A

true

ie. psychosocial dwarfism

103
Q

psychosocial dwarfism

A

relatively rare syndrome

found among human infants reared in situations in which they experience little/no physical contact

many disruptions

104
Q

effects of psychosocial dwarfism

A
  1. compromised GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT
    a) despite adequate nutrition
  2. disruptions of normal SLEEP CYCLES
  3. disruption of GH SECRETION
  4. absence of TISSUE RESPONSIVENESS to exogenous GH
105
Q

what distinguishes psychosocial dwarfism from hypopituitary dwarfism?

A

psychosocial dwarfism: no tissue responsiveness to exogenous GH

hypopituitary dwarfism: treatment with GH restores normal growth

106
Q

girl with psychosocial dwarfism example

A
  1. admitted to hospital at 15.3 years

a) height was normal for a 9 year old

b) had abnormal GH release

c) LH and FSH were undetectable

  1. after 1 month in hospital

a) began to undergo puberty

  1. age 16, living in foster care

a) significant GH release

  1. growth continued

a) at 16.9 years, she had grown 27.5 cm

107
Q

attachment styles define degree to which there is…

A
  1. security
  2. emotional availability

in the relationship

108
Q

children with SECURE attachment in the Strange Situation

A

relaxed and mutually enjoyable interaction between the dyad

109
Q

children with INSECURE attachment in the Strange Situation

A

physical and affective avoidance towards parent

or short verbal exchanges void of affection

110
Q

attachment style and cortisol

A

SECURE attachment: more adaptive cortisol response
a) less cortisol is released

INSECURE attachment: dysregulation of HPA axis
a) higher response to stress/higher cortisol)

111
Q

how can the HPA axis response of poor toddlers be buffered?

A

by having ATTACHMENT SECURITY

attachment security buffers the HPA axis of toddlers growing up in poverty

context: when they’re receiving inoculations

securely attached children show less cortisol secretion after inoculations

112
Q

effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care

A

attachment interventions help with cortisol response/HPA axis

113
Q

attachment security moderates the link between adverse childhood experiences and cellular aging

A

attachment state and adverse experiences interacted in PREDICTING TELOMERE LENGTH

  1. association between number of ACE and telomere length was nonsignificant for secure individuals
  2. but was strongly NEGATIVELY ASSOCIATED with ADVERSE EXPERIENCES
114
Q

attachment and aging

A

securely attached kids show LESS AGING

lower telomere length for insecurely attached kids

115
Q

seems like ______ ______ are responsible for the differences we observe in female and male rat stress response

A

ovarian hormones

116
Q

female rodents have _______ basal concentrations of corticosterone

A

greater

117
Q

in response to physical/psychological stressors, female rodents secrete…

A

higher concentration of corticosterone

118
Q

why is impairment of HPA function more marked in female than male rats?

A

because female have:

  1. greater basal levels of corticosterone
  2. higher concentrations of corticosterone in response to physical/physiological stress
119
Q

what about the adrenal gland is different between males and females?

A

LARGER in females than in males

and the adrenal gland produces glucocorticoids

120
Q

is there a difference in the size of the stress response between males and females?

A

yes

females have an increased response to fear and stress

121
Q

is there a sex difference in cortisol secretion in response to stress?

A

yes

males secrete less cortisol in response to stress

122
Q

are sex differences in stress response ACTIVATED or ORGANIZED by hormones?

A

seems like they’re ACTIVATED by hormones

ie. ovariectomy in adulthood eliminates the sex difference in the HPA axis response, and estradiol replacement therapy restores it

123
Q

ovariectomy in adulthood eliminates the sex difference in the HPA axis response, and estradiol replacement therapy restores it: what 2 important things does this tell us?

A
  1. sex differences in stress response are ACTIVATED rather than organized by hormones
  2. seems like ovarian hormones are responsible for the differences we observe in female and male rat stress response
124
Q

how do societal gender roles affect stress sex differences?

A

societal gender roles often result in woman FACING MORE STRESSORS than men

125
Q

men and women tend to respond more to different types of stress

A

MEN: stressors involving ACHIEVEMENT pressure

WOMEN: may find INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT more stressful

126
Q

does stress affect the sexes equally in terms of COGNITIVE FUNCTION and ATTENTION?

A

no

affects MEN more

127
Q

emotional and addictive eating is more prevalent…

A

in females

128
Q

are men or women more likely to experience childhood trauma?

A

women are

women also suffer higher levels of childhood stress

129
Q

what does stress do to testosterone production?

A

INHIBITS it

and low testosterone levels reduce both SEXUAL MOTIVATION and PERFORMANCE

(an effect of stress on reproductive function in males)

130
Q

in males, the release of CRH and endogenous opioids can directly suppress what?

A

the release of GnRH

(an effect of stress on reproductive function in males)

131
Q

in males, the activation of CRH receptors in ACTH-releasing cells stimulates what?

A

protein kinase A pathway

this leads to CHANGES IN GENE TRANSCRIPTION and other cellular functions

(an effect of stress on reproductive function in males)

132
Q

have CRH and its receptors been identified in the testes and ovaries?

A

yes

this suggests that this releasing hormone may also DIRECTLY INHIBIT STEROID PRODUCTION

(an effect of stress on reproductive function in males)

133
Q

the fact that CRH and its receptors have been identified in the testes and ovaries suggests that…

A

this releasing hormone (CRH - cortico-releasing hormone) may also directly inhibit steroid production

134
Q

what can both CRH and VASOPRESSIN stimulate?

A

the expression of the genes for proopiomelanocortin (POMC) in the anterior pituitary

POMC can be processed by various enzymes to yield several peptides, including ACTH and beta-endorphin

both endogenous and exogenous opioids inhibit secretion of GnRH and LH

135
Q

PMC can yield what?

A

(recall: CRH can lead to expression of POMC)

POMC can be processed by various enzymes to yield several peptides…

including ACTH and beta-endorphins

AND both endogenous and exogenous opioids inhibit secretion of GnRH and LH

136
Q

both endogenous and exogenous opioids inhibit secretion of what?

A

GnRH and LH

basically, CRH stimulates expression of POMC genes. POMC can yield ACTH and beta-endorphins. and endogenous and exogenous opioids inhibit GnRH and LH secretion

(an effect of stress on reproductive function in males)

137
Q

plasma LH concentrations are _______ after endorphin treatment

A

reduced

reduction in LH caused by endorphin is REVERSED by treatment with opioid antagonist naloxone

138
Q

glucocorticoids can inhibit male reproduction in ______ ways

A

several

139
Q

at high concentrations, what do glucocorticoids suppress?

A

GnRH and LH secretion

impacts reproduction

140
Q

glucocorticoids effects on protein formations - reproduction

A

glucocorticoids have been reported to INHIBIT the formation of proteins needed for production of:

a) hormone receptors
b) steroidogenic enzymes
c) intracellular signalling molecules

141
Q

how does cortisol inhibit testosterone secretion in men?

A

by acting on TESTICULAR LH RECEPTORS

cross-reaction!

142
Q

Leydig cells do what?

A

produce testosterone

143
Q

stress and male reproduction: leydig cells have GRs that…

A

are involved in normal processes of CELL GROWTH, METABOLISM, ENERGY USE

but when glucocorticoids are elevated for a long time (esp in subordinate animals)…

an enzyme that normally neutralizes glucocorticoids at basal concentrations is overwhelmed and testosterone production is curtailed

144
Q

stress and male reproduction: leydig cells - when glucocorticoids are elevated for a long time - what happens?

A

TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION IS CURTAILED

leydig cells contain GRs that are involved in cell growth, metabolism and energy use

but when glucocorticoids are high for a long time

an ENZYME THAT NORMALLY NEUTRALISES GLUCOCORITOIDS AT BASAL CONCENTRATIONS IS OVERHWELMED

testosterone production is curtailed

145
Q

what do glucocorticoids do to spermatogenesis?

A

suppress it

146
Q

do glucocorticoids suppress spermatogenesis more directly through a) acting on testosterone levels or b) acting on Leydig cells

A

through ACTING ON TESTOSTERONE LEVELS

because the effects on Leydig cells just indirectly lower testosterone

147
Q

glucocorticoids suppress spermatogenesis through acting on testosterone levels. this resulting low testosterone may fail to…

A

support spermatogenesis

such that SPERM COUNTS FALL

and stressed individuals become INFERTILE

148
Q

does social status affect infertility?

A

social status appears to affect TESTICULAR ENZYMES

these enzymes in turn MEDIATE ANDROGEN PRODUCTION and FERTILITY

149
Q

dominant rats have higher levels of the enzyme that…

A

counteracts elevated glucocorticoid concentrations

ENSURES FERTILITY

dominant rats are more able to cope with stressors

150
Q

what does a moderate amount of activity/exercise do to testosterone levels?

A

raises testosterone concentrations

151
Q

what does mild exercise do to neurogenesis?

A

promotes neurogenesis in the hippocampus

this counteracts the effects of stress

152
Q

exercise counteracts the effects of stress through what?

A

through promoting neurogenesis in the hippocampus

153
Q

excessive exercise can be interpreted the body as…

A

stress

can cause sustained glucocorticoid secretion

this leads to low testosterone concentrations

154
Q

running a marathon…

A

is associated with higher glucocorticoid secretion

155
Q

most common effects of stress on human copulation typically involve…

A

EPINEPHRINE and SYMPATHETIC SIGNALS

stress and erectile disfunction

156
Q

to generate a penile erection, both sympathetic and parasympathetic NS must…

A

ACT TOGETHER

in opposition

157
Q

how do the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS work in opposition to generate a penile erection?

A
  1. ERECTION INITIATION: parasympathetic nervous system must be activated
  2. as copulation proceeds, the rest of the body maintains high sympathetic tone (the sympathetic NS increases heart rate and BP)
  3. genitalia retains its parasympathetic tone UNTIL SUFFICIENT STIMULATION occurs, then parasympathetic input SUDDENLY ENDS
  4. simultaneously, sympathetic inputs to the penis are activated and EJACULATION OCCURS
158
Q

what system is activated for erection initiation?

A

parasympathetic NS in the genitalia

159
Q

erection: as copulation proceeds, rest of body maintains…

A

high sympathetic tone

which increases heart rate and BP

160
Q

erection: genitalia retains its parasympathetic tone until…

A

sufficient stimulation occurs

then parasympathetic input suddenly ends

161
Q

erection: parasympathetic input suddenly ends and simultaneously…

A

sympathetic inputs to the penis are activated and ejaculation occurs!

162
Q

during stress, what happens to erections? why?

A

harder to get an erection

becomes increasingly difficult to establish parasympathetic activity in the penis

because of the stress-induced high sympathetic input

163
Q

successful ovulation and onset of mating behaviour in females can be disrupted by what?

A

stress

164
Q

what does successful ovulation and onset of mating behaviour in females depend on?

A

precise timing of neuroendocrine events

165
Q

stress effects on reproductive function in females

A

stress can interrupt ESTROUS cycles

stress can cease the MENSTRUAL cycle

166
Q

stress effects on female reproductive function: women with FUNCTIONAL HYPOTHALAMIC AMENORRHEA display…

A

elevated cortisol concentrations

(functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: no menstrual cycles and no pulsatile release of GnRH from hypothalamus)

167
Q

mammals have _______ to inhibit _______ when they fall into a negative energy balance

A

MECHANISMS to inhibit REPRODUCTION

women who DIET RIGOROUSLY or EXERCISE STRENUOUSLY often have FERTILITY PROBLEMS

168
Q

in long distance runners, LH pulses…

A

are less frequent

169
Q

treatment of well-fed female hamsters with a molecule that PREVENTS GLUCOSE UTILIZATION…

A

SUSPENDS ESTROUS CYCLES

thus, stress appears to interrupt estrous cycles by affecting METABOLIC PATHWAYS

170
Q

hamster study shows that stress interrupts estrous cycles by…

A

affecting metabolic pathways

171
Q

glucocorticoids at high concentrations can suppress secretion of…

A

GnRH and LH

in males and females

172
Q

hyperandrogenism

A

can be caused by stress in females

173
Q

signs of hyperandrogenism

A
  1. male pattern balding
  2. virilization
  3. acne
  4. abnormal hair growth
174
Q

overactive adrenal cortices

A

one additional mechanism of REPRODUCTIVE IMPAIRMENT in females

remember that adrenal glands secrete androgens in both males and females

small amounts of ANDROSTENEDIONE hormone can interrupt female reproductive processes

  1. many of these androgens = converted too estrogens in fat cells

during food shortages, less estrogen is produced in fat cells

contributes to LOW CIRCULATING ESTROGEN

  1. more importantly, increased androgen concentrations disturbs negative feedback mechanism of GnRH and gonadotropins
175
Q

small amounts of ANDROSTENEDIONE hormone can…

A

interrupt female reproductive processes

caused by overactive adrenal cortices (which produce androgens)

176
Q

overactive adrenal cortices and androgens: 2 effects

A
  1. androgens are increased - many of these androgens are CONVERTED TO ESTROGEN in fat cells

a) during food storage less estrogen is produced in fat calls - contributes to LOW CIRCULATING ESTROGEN

  1. more importantly, increased androgen concentrations DISTURBS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms of GnRH and gonadotropins

CAUSES REPRODUCTIVE IMPAIRMENT IN FEMALES

177
Q

stress hormones influence the brain how?

A

influence STRUCTURE

influence FUNCTION

178
Q

stress hormones like cortisol influence the brain where?

A

key areas for LEARNING

amygdala, hippocampus, PFC (all part of brain’s LIMBIC SYSTEM)

179
Q

brain system particularly influenced by cortisol

A

limbic system

180
Q

stress causes the amygdala, hippocampus and PFC to be…

A
  1. on HIGH ALERT for danger
  2. QUICK to REACT
181
Q

stress changes amygdala, hippocampus, PFC - which affect individual’s ability to…

A
  1. regulate EMOTION
  2. regulate ATTENTION
  3. regulate BEHAVIOUR
  4. LEARN
  5. REMEMBER

^ these are all key components of academic success and health outcomes

182
Q

cortisol’s effects on the PFC

A

generally: reductions

  1. structural changes
    a) fewer and altered connections
  2. functional changes
    a) difficulty regulating thoughts

b) difficulty regulating emotions

c) difficulty regulating behaviour

183
Q

brain areas that help shut off the stress response

A

PFC

Hippocampus

184
Q

brain areas that turn on stress hormones and increase heart rate

A

amygdala

185
Q

cortisol’s effect on the hippocampus

A
  1. structural changes
    a) fewer connections

b) fewer new neurons created

c) smaller volume

  1. functional changes
    a) memory difficulties

b) difficulty contextualizing new situations/info

c) difficulty storing new learning

186
Q

cortisol’s effect on the amygdala

A
  1. structural changes
    a) altered connections

b) increased volume

  1. functional changes
    a) hyperractive stress response
187
Q

stress and the brain youtube video

A
  1. chronic stress affects brain SIZE, STRUCTURE, FUNCTION - down to the GENES
  2. HPA axis is the basis of all this - it’s instantly activated with stress
  3. high cortisol over time wreaks havoc on the brain
  4. high cortisol increases activity in the amygdala (fear centre)
  5. high cortisol causes hippocampus function to deteriorate (learning, memory, stress control)
  6. hypothalamus is also affected negatively
  7. PFC shrinks, loss of synapses, less neurogenesis in hippocampus
  8. ^ results in struggling to learn/remember things, higher depression and Alzheimer’s risk
  9. goes down to DNA - modulates cortisol receptors which stick to cortisol and dampen the stress response (negative feedback is impeded)
  10. effects which genes are EXPRESSED as opposed to the actual gene (epigenetic)
  11. passed down generations
  12. but you can reverse the ways that cortisol changes your brain (through EXERCISE and NUTRITION)
  13. exercise and nutrition INCREASE HIPPOCAMPUS SIZE (improves memory and stress response)
188
Q

how can you reverse the ways that cortisol changes your brain?

A

exercise and meditation

these both INCREASE HIPPOCAMPUS SIZE

and improve memory and stress response

189
Q

when do mood disorders typically emerge?

A

during adolescence

when HORMONE CONCENTRATIONS ARE CHANGING dramatically

190
Q

adolescence and mood disorders - hormone concentrations are changing dramatically…

A

the interactions of these hormones with STILL-MATURING BRAINS can trigger…

DYSFUNCTIONAL AFFECTIVE RESPONSES in susceptible individuals

191
Q

susceptible individuals to mood disorders

A

have some combo of GENETIC and ENVIRONMENTAL pressures for disordered moods

192
Q

sex differences in mood disorders

A

sex diffs begin at PUBERTY

generally women are at TWICE THE RISK compared with men

193
Q

examples of affective disorders

A

depression

bipolar

perimenstrual syndrome

seasonal affective disorder

postpartum depression

194
Q

mood disorders are classified on a _________

A

spectrum/continuum

from DEPRESSION to MANIA

depression > melancholia > normal > hypomania > mania

195
Q

DSM criteria for major depressive disorder

A

must experience 5 or more of a list symptoms during the same 2-week period

and at least one of the symptoms should be either 1) depressed mood or 2) loss of interest or pleasure

196
Q

MDD: DSM says that at least one of the symptoms should be either…

A

1) depressed mood

2) loss of interest or pleasure

197
Q

MDD list of symptoms

A

(must experience 5+ of these symptoms during same 2-week period)

  1. DEPRESSED MOOD most of the day, nearly every day
  2. markedly DIMINISHED INTEREST/PLEASURE in all or almost all activities most of the day, nearly everyday
  3. significant WEIGHT LOSS when not dieting, WEIGHT GAIN or decrease/increase in APPETITE nearly every day
  4. INSOMNIA or HYPERSOMNIA nearly everyday
  5. PSYCHOMOTOR AGITATION or RETARDATION nearly everyday
  6. FATIGUE or loss of energy nearly everyday
  7. feelings of WORTHLESSNESS or excessive/inappropriate GUILT nearly everyday
  8. diminished ability to THINK/CONCENTRATE, INDECISIVENESS, nearly everyday
  9. recurrent THOUGHTS OF DEATH, SUICIDAL IDEATION without a specific plan, SUICIDE ATTEMPT or a specific plan for committing suicide
198
Q

HPA axis in depressed people

A

negative feedback features of HPA axis appear to be IMPAIRED

198
Q

why is negative feedback in depressed people impaired?

A

because BLOOD CORTISOL concentrations are often HIGHER in depressed than in non-depressed individuals

199
Q

blood cortisol levels in depressed people…

A

are HIGHER than normal

impaired negative feedback

200
Q

thyroid function in depressed people

A

low

although TRH and TSH are usually within the normal range in depressed patients, the THYROID RESPONSE to TSH is SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER in depressed patients

201
Q

what accounts for decreased thyroid function in depressed people?

A

not TRH and TSH levels - these are usually within the normal range

its the THYROID RESPONSE to TSH that is significantly lower

202
Q

lower thyroid response to TSH in depressed people suggests…

A

some SUBCLINICAL ENDOCRINE MALFUNCTION

203
Q

4 things related to THYROID that depressed people often exhibit…

A
  1. very high level of ANTIBODIES against thyroid gland
  2. high TRH concentrations in CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
  3. enhancement of ANTIDEPRESSANT EFFICACY by co-treatment with TRIIODTHYRONINE (T3)
  4. MOOD of depressed patients with HYPOTHYROIDISM IMPROVES when they begin THYROID TREATMENT
204
Q

treating depressed patients with thyroid hormones only works if…

A

the patient has hypothyroidism

can’t simply give a depressed person T3 or T4 and expect them to get better

205
Q

estrogen and depression

A

DEFICITS in estrogen have been associated with depression

206
Q

estrogen and depression: double blind study SETUP

A

double blind

ESTROGEN TREATMENT was given to women who were hospitalized with severe depression

207
Q

estrogen and depression: double blind study RESULTS

A

none of the women who received placebo treatment showed mood changes

actually, 47% of those patients deteriorated in mood

BUT over 90% of the depressed women treated with estrogen significantly improved

208
Q

estrogen and depression: double blind study - what happened to the women treated with estrogen?

A

90% of the depressed women treated with estrogen significantly improved

209
Q

estrogen and depression: double blind study -women with history of past depression who were crossed over from estradiol to placebo patches

A

experienced a SIGNIFICANT INCREASE in depression symptoms

210
Q

PTSD

A

psychiatric disorder that may occur following experience/witnessing of life-threatening events

211
Q

PTSD symptoms

A
  1. RELIVING the experience (nightmares, flashbacks)
  2. SLEEP disturbances
  3. feelings of DETACHMENT (feeling world is unreal, out-of-body experiences, estrangement)
212
Q

holocaust survivors with PTSD displayed…

A
  1. LOW URINARY CORTISOL EXCRETION
  2. IMPAIRED MEMORY

compared with Holocaust survivors without PTSD or healthy Jewish adults

COMBAT VETERANS displayed similar HPA axis deregulation

213
Q

in cognitive tests, Vietnam veterans with combat-related PTSD also displayed…

A

significant DEFICITS in SHORT-TERM MEMORY

214
Q

several fMRI studies have revealed that…

A

people suffering from PTSD have SMALLER HIPPOCAMPI than age-matched individuals without PTSD

215
Q

what do correlations between hippocampal volume and severity of PTSD symptoms show?

A

correlation of HIPPOCAMPAL VOLUME and PTSD SEVERITY reveal SIMILAR RELATIONSHIPS in Vietnam combat veterans and their non-combat brothers

suggests that having a small hippocampus might be a RISK FACTOR for PTSD, rather than a result of PTSD

216
Q

brain imaging of hippocampal volume and PTSD severity suggests that maybe…

A

having a small hippocampus is a RISK FACTOR for PTSD

rather than a result of it

217
Q

PTSD and GABA-benzodiazepine binding

A

veterans with PTSD showed LESS GABA-benzodiazepine binding

in a PET-scan throughout the brain

but ESPECIALLY in hippocampus, insula, thalamus, PFC, temporal and parietal cortices

218
Q

veterans with PTSD showed LESS GABA-benzodiazepine binding in a PET-scan - in WHICH BRAIN REGIONS?

A

all throughout the brain

but especially in:
a) hippocampus
b) insula
c) thalamus
d) PFC
e) temporal cortex
f) parietal cortex

219
Q

GABA

A

the principle inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

it exerts control over EXCITABILITY of brain areas

220
Q

what does GABA exert control over?

A

the excitability of brain areas

and there’s less GABA-benzodiazepine binding in veterans with PTSD

221
Q

alterations in GABA-ergic systems have been implicated in…

A

the PATHOGENESIS of anxiety disorders

including PTSD and depression

222
Q

seasonal affective disorder aka

A

winter depression

SAD

223
Q

SAD is characterized by…

A
  1. depressed affect
  2. lethargy
  3. loss of libido
  4. hypersomnia
  5. excessive weight gain
  6. carb cravings
  7. anxiety
  8. inability to focus attention/concentrate
224
Q

when does SAD occur

A

late autumn and winter

225
Q

SAD prevalance rates

A

1% to 10%

higher prevalence rates:
a) at higher latitudes
b) in women

226
Q

tryptophan

A

amino acid that normally circulates in the blood at low concentrations

converted to serotonin in the brain

227
Q

what leads to higher tryptophan in blood?

A
  1. diet consumption of carbs - stimulates pancreas to secret insulin
  2. insulin facilitates uptake of sugars and non-tryptophan amino acids into peripheral cells
  3. this action leads to HIGHER TRYPTOPHAN IN BLOOD
228
Q

carb ingestion seems to result in more…

A

tryptophan crossing the blood-brain barrier

this results in HIGHER SEROTONIN PRODUCTION

serotonin = generally associated with a decrease in appetite

229
Q

what results in higher serotonin production

A

carb intake

because eat carbs - insulin is released

insulin = uptake of sugars and non-tryptophan amino acids in peripheral cells

results in higher tryptophan in blood

higher tryptophan = more serotonin in blood

230
Q

higher serotonin means decreased…

A

appetite

231
Q

pateints with SAD have cyclic disruptions in what?

A

in their SEROTONIN-CARBOHYDRATE REGULATING MECHANISMS

232
Q

those with SAD have more…

A

serotonin transporter (5-HTT) activity during the autumn than the spring

more transporters = less serotonin available in the synaptic cleft

serotonin re-uptake is higher during the winter

(cyclic disruptions in their serotonin-carbohydrate regulating mechanisms)

233
Q

serotinin is converted to melatonin where?

A

in the pineal gland

234
Q

melatonin concentrations are higher…

A

during the night than during the day

235
Q

in patients with SAD, serotonin reuptake is higher when?

A

during the winter

because there’s more serotonin transporter (5-HTT) activity during this time

more transporters = less serotonin available in synaptic cleft

since serotonin is associated with a decrease in appetite, lower serotonin means INCREASED APPETITE

236
Q

whyt do people with SAD have increased appetite?

A

because they have more serotonin transporter (5-HTT) activity in the winter

and more transporters mean less serotonin available in the synaptic cleft

and since serotonin decreases appetite, since there’s more serotonin there’s less appetite decrease

237
Q

current SAD treatment

A

light treatment is best

238
Q

SAD prior treatment ideas

A

before light treatment, it was thought that…

changing the ONSET OF SLEEP would be ideal in entraining circadian rhythms (biological clocks)

239
Q

light treatment at different times of the day results in differing…

A

rates of mood improvement

evening: no mood benefits

morning: (for a few hours) results in signs of REMISSION of the SAD symptoms

240
Q

a few hours of bright light SAD treatment usually…

A

results in signs of SAD symptom remission

within a few days

241
Q

why do males (and females) abuse androgens?

A
  1. enhance body muscle mass
  2. enhance athletic performance
242
Q

adverse behavioural effects of androgen usage

A
  1. hyper aggression (including criminal violence)
  2. major psychiatric symptoms

a) mania

b) hypomania

243
Q

4 psychological variables that modulate stress phsyiology

A
  1. control
  2. predictability
  3. outlets for frustration
  4. habituation
244
Q

interventions to reduce effects of stress on brain

A
  1. regular physical activity
  2. mindfulness-based stress reduction
  3. social support and integration
  4. developing sense of meaning and purpose
245
Q

control and modulation of stress

A

people suffer fewer stress-related pathologies if they can control the situation causing the stress

controlling a stressful situation is a type of COPING behaviour

246
Q

predictability and modulation of stress

A

predictability reduces stress response

knowing what to except allows you to prepare

whereas unpredictable stressors activate FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT response

depending on magnitude, can have long term consequences

247
Q

outlets for frustration and modulation of stress

A

ability to engage in displacement behaviour

having an “outlet”

ie. engaging in a hobby or moderate exercise

even modest activity can lessen effects of stress

248
Q

habituation and modulation of stress

A

learning that a stimulus that was originally perceived as a stressor IS NOT A STRESSOR

important way to modulate stress response

249
Q

lecture overview

A
  1. EPIGENETICS describes processes by which LASTING CHANGES in GENE EXPRESSION can be accomplished without a change in DNA sequence
  2. epigenetic mechanisms mediate interplay between NATURE and NURTURE - thus epigenetic investigations can focus more on GENETIC side of things, or ENVIRONMENTAL side of things
  3. experiences are MEDIATED by HORMONES, which can lead to long-lasting ALTERATIONS
  4. MOOD DISORDERS are characterized on a CONTINUUM and are influenced by hormones
  5. CORTISOL, SEROTONIN, MELATONIN, ANDROGENS are all correlated with series of mood disorders

Psyc 342 (10 decks)

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