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Psyc 342 > hormones and cognition > Flashcards

hormones and cognition Flashcards

1
Q

flashbulb memort

A

vivid memories of important, stressful events

not a separate memory function, but a class of memories that are:

a) more FREQUENTLY REHEARSED
b) more STRONGLY ENCODED

positive, yet stressful, events like weddings, births, lottery winnings are also remembered with great clarity

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2
Q

type of memory that operates without a NS

A

vaccines

human immune system can recognize something it has seen before and enact a response

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3
Q

all memory systems shared which abilities?

A

abilities to…

  1. enter info into storage (acquisition and consolidation)
  2. retain info
  3. retrieve info from storage
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4
Q

learning requires what to happen to info?

A
  1. input
  2. storage
  3. retrieval
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5
Q

why are effects of hormones on learning/memory based on task performance/observed behaviour?

A

because hard to measure learning directly

can only measure behaviour directly and quantitatively

BUT there are other ways by which hormones affect performance

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6
Q

hormones and memory: what steps can hormones affect?

A

all three of the INPUT, STORAGE and RETRIEVAL stages

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7
Q

psychological components of learning/memory

A
  1. motivation
  2. attention
  3. arousal

they all interact and affect one another

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8
Q

psychological components of memory can’t be directly measured, so…

A

only performance on tests designed to assess them can be measured

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9
Q

hormones and psychological components of memory

A

hormones = involved in arousal, motivation and attention

(and sensation, perception, emotion…)

hormones can affect the ANXIETY LEVEL independently from arousal during acquisition or memory testing

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10
Q

what can hormones affect independently from arousal?

A

anxiety level during acquisition or memory testing

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11
Q

one of the few laws of psychology

A

inverted U-shaped function of arousal

optimal performance on a learning task occurs at MODERATE AROUSAL LEVELS

if arousal is TOO LOW or TOO HIGH, learning is adversely affected

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12
Q

learning/performance: because hormones are involved in arousal…

A

they can have affects on learning/performance

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13
Q

learning

A

process of ADAPTIVE CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR in response to EXPERIENCE

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14
Q

memory

A

encoding, storage and retrieval (or forgetting) of information about past experience

necessary for learning

hormones can affect any one or all of these stages of learning/memory

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15
Q

associative learning

A

learning about relationships through repeated experience

aka conditioning

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16
Q

sensitization

A

type of non-associative learning

stimulus that originally provoked little/no response begins to evoke a STRONGER response

after several presentations or a single intense presentation

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17
Q

habituation

A

type of associative learning

learning NOT TO RESPOND after repeated exposure to a stimulus

decrease in response to stimulus

results from reduction in amount of neurotransmitters released into the synapses

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18
Q

non associative learning

A

learning that doesn’t require pairing or stimuli association

altered response upon only one presentation

ie. sensitization

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19
Q

classical conditioning

A

response that was originally elicited by one stimulus can now be elicited by another stimulus that originally had no effect

learning represents the formation of an ASSOCIATION (pairing) between the two stimuli

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20
Q

Pavlovian conditioning

A

classical conditioning

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21
Q

operant learning

A

when animal performs an action in course of APPETITIVE or SEARCHING behaviour

frequently by accident

which is REINFORCED/REWARDED

often this single incident doesn’t lead to direct association of the action (operant) with its result (reinforcement)

but if act is performed several times, by CHOICE, and is reinforced EACH TIME…

association gradually builds

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22
Q

skinner box

A

used to measure instrumental learning/operant conditioning tasks

facilitates assessment of the ability of an animal to form an association between the BEHAVIOUR and its OUTCOME

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23
Q

active avoidance

A

form of associative learning

situation where animal must DO SOMETHING to AVOID a noxious situation

ie. mouse has to move to one side of Skinner box to avoid a shock

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24
Q

passive avoidance

A

form of associative learning

individual must SUPPRESS SOME BEHAVIOUR to that would otherwise be exhibited

ie. mice like the dark. mouse is placed in bright part of box, next to dark area. when it goes to dark part, it gets a foot shock. must go back to bright area to escape the sock

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25
Q

passive avoidance mouse skinner box: measure of strength of its memory

A

length of time the mouse remains in the lighted compartment

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26
Q

short term memory persists how long?

A

seconds to minutes

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27
Q

best way to move items from short to LTM

A

rehearsal

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28
Q

long term memory lasts how long?

A

days, weeks, years

no upper limit in capacity or retention

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29
Q

LTM splits into…

A

explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)

explicit splits into: semantic and episodic

implicit splits into: priming, conditioning, skill learning

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30
Q

working memory

A

similar to declarative and STM because it typically involves STM for info that changes on a regular basis

ie. remembering a phone number before you find paper to write it down on

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31
Q

reference memory

A

refers to associations/discriminations requiring REPETITIOUS LEARNING

ie. learning the rules

ie. putting keys in the same spot every time you get home

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32
Q

spatial memory

A

subcategory of memory that encodes info about the ENVIRONMENT and its ORIENTATION

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33
Q

3 main hormones that affect learning and memory

A

epinephrine

insulin

glucocorticoids

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34
Q

why don’t we know exactly how epinephrine works in the brain to store memory?

A

because it’s a polar molecule, so it doesn’t cross the blood brain barrier

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35
Q

epinephrine is released when…

A

learning occurs

generally enhances memory

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36
Q

u shaped function and epinephrine

A

u shaped function applies to epinephrine levels too

low and high blood levels of epinephrine impair memory

MODERATE levels ENHANCE memory

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37
Q

Yerkes-Dodson curve

A

u-shaped arousal curve

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38
Q

memory enhancing effects of norepinephrine depend on…

A
  1. dose
  2. timing

ie. animals perform better in avoidance situations after receiving a MODERATE rather than a mild foot shock

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39
Q

epinephrine potentiates…

A

the effects of the noxious stimuli used to train animals in active avoidance tasks

this is supported by the fact that epinephrine is released in response to stressful events

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40
Q

optimal epinephrine level for avoidance memory enhancement in rats

A

1500 pg/ml (in blood)

this level is observed in rats that show optimal performance in avoidance tasks

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41
Q

if mild foot shock produces blood epinephrine levels of 1000 pg/ml and this shock is paired…

A

with an INJECTION that raises epinephrine levels another 500 pg/ml…

then the exogenous and endogenous sum together…

and the animal exhibits OPTIMAL LEARNING

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42
Q

when is the best time to administer epinephrine?

A

immediately after training

if treatment comes BEFORE training or after SUBSTANTIAL TIME PERIOD has elapsed since training, it ISN’T EFFECTIVE in enhancing memory

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43
Q

temporal constraints on effectiveness of norepinephrine are consistent with…

A

hypothesis that epinephrine influences memory by potentiating the effects of noxious events

maybe because this time period is when memory is being consolidated

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44
Q

most effective timing of epinephrine administration in the rat avoidance task

A

injections are most effective in enhancing memory if given 1 minute after training

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45
Q

how does epinephrine enhance memory? background

A

doesn’t cross brain barrier - polar molecule

produced by very few neurons in brain as NT

and memory for passive/active avoidance tasks definitely resides in the brain

how can epinephrine secreted by adrenal glands affect learning and memory processes if it can’t get to neurons in the brain?

2 HYPOTHESES

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46
Q

how does epinephrine enhance memory? 2 hypotheses

A
  1. epinephrine activates PERIPHERAL RECEPTORS that directly influence brain function
  2. epinephrine affects memory via effets on BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
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47
Q

hypothesis 1: epinephrine works via peripheral receptors

A

epinephrine modulates memory by activating peripheral receptors that communicate with the CNS

initiated by activation of peripheral BETA-ADRENOCEPTORS located on VAGAL AFFERENTS that project to nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the brain stem

noradrenergic projections originating in NTS INNERVATE FOREBRAIN structures involved in LEARNING and MEMORY, including the amygdala

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48
Q

amygdala, epinephrine and memory

A

peripheral receptor hypothesis

epinephrine > beta adrenoreceptors > NTS > noradrenergic projections to AMYGDALA (and other forebrain structures)

amygdala historically considered to be involved in emotions

but also involved in LEARNING and MEMORY

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49
Q

how is amygdala involved in learning and memory?

A

directly and indirectly

via its close association with the HIPPOCAMPUS

50
Q

electrical stimulation of amygdala can…

A

increase memory retention

51
Q

vagus nerve

A

main nerves of parasympathetic NS

controls specific body functions like heart rate

52
Q

what part of amygdala is especially involved in epinephrine action and memory?

A

basal lateral amygdala

53
Q

basal lateral amygdala modulates…

A

memory of EMOTIONAL experience

by modulating MEMORY CONSOLIDATION via efferents to other brain regions

like caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, cortex

54
Q

what prevents the memory-enhancing effects of epinephrine

A

blocking any part of the pathway

from beta-noradrenergic receptors on vagus nerve, to the neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) which project to basal lateral amygdala

55
Q

peripheral receptor epinephrine hypothesis: story reading experiment SETUP

A
  1. read an EMOTIONALLY CHARGED or NEUTRAL story
  2. treated with PROPRANOLOL (beta-noradregernic antagonist)
56
Q

peripheral receptor epinephrine hypothesis: story reading experiment RESULTS

A

those who read emotional story and were treated with propranolol…

had SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIRED MEMORY

but memory WASN’T IMPAIRED for the neutral stories

57
Q

peripheral receptor epinephrine hypothesis: story reading experiment TAKEAWAY

A

beta blockers affect emotional memories

but not non-emotional ones

58
Q

peripheral receptor epinephrine hypothesis: story reading experiment RESEARCHERS RULED OUT…

A

researchers ruled out possibility that drug had NON-SPECIFIC EFFECTS on attention or motivation

support hypothesis that highly charged emotional memories REQUIRE ACTIVATION OF BETA-ANDRENERGIC RECEPTORS

59
Q

the story reading experiment provides support for…

A

hypothesis that highly charged emotional memories require activation of beta-andrenergic receptors

because only memories of the emotional stories were reduced by the propanol

60
Q

peripheral receptor epinephrine hypothesis: story reading experiment - alpha-amylase

A

alpha amylase (biomarker for adrenergic activity) was associated with emotional images but not to neutral images

61
Q

alpha amylase

A

biomarker for adrenergic activity

62
Q

PTSD

A

enhanced memories associated with arousing experiences = adaptive for avoiding future dangers

but when memories of fearful situations are intrusive, distressing and unwanted, can lead to PTSD

63
Q

epinephrine and PTSD

A

variation among people in their FEAR-LEARNING and MEMORY MECHANISMS

as well as their RESPONSIVENESS TO EPINEPHRINE and NOREPINEPHRINE

can contribute to individual variation in PTSD SUSCEPTIBILITY

64
Q

what can contribute to PTSD susceptibility?

A
  1. individual variation in FEAR LEARNING and MEMORY MECHANISMS
  2. individual variation in RESPONSIVENESS to EPINEPHRINE and NOREPINEPHRINE
65
Q

hypothesis 2: epinephrine affects memory via its effect on BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

A

epinephrine elevates blood glucose concentrations

this increases the amount of glucose that enters neurons in the brain

glucose enhances memory for AVOIDANCE LEARNING

as with epinephrine, effects of glucose are TIME-DEPENDENT

66
Q

are glucose and peripheral receptor hypotheses of epinephrine and memory incompatible?

A

no

epinephrine elevates blood glucose concentrations, which increases the amount of glucose that enters neurons in the brain

67
Q

glucose enhances memory for…

A

avoidance learning

time-dependent

68
Q

injections of glucose delayed by an hour…

A

have no effects on retention and performance

but otherwise glucose enhances memory for avoidance learning

69
Q

u shaped curve and glucose

A

u shaped curve also applies to glucose

there’s an optimal level (moderate) at which glucose enhances memory/performance

70
Q

additional evidence for epinephrine blood glucose hypothesis

A

based on NEGATIVE FINDINGS

71
Q

epinephrine blood glucose hypothesis: negative findings

A

memory-enhancing and memory-impairing effects of epinephrine treatment can be BLOCKED

by treating animals with ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS

BUT THESE BLOCKERS HAVE NO EFFECT ON MEM ENHANCEMENT PRODUCED BY GLUCOSE TREATMENT

72
Q

epinephrine blood glucose hypothesis: negative results are consistent with notion…

A

reminder: mem enhancing effects are blocked by adrenergic antagonists, but not when mem enhancement is produced by glucose treatment

consistent with notion that GLUCOSE RELEASE is a memory modulating step that occurs SUBSEQUENT to release of norepinephrine

effects of glucose are DOWNSTREAM from peripheral epinephrine receptors, so they remain intact

73
Q

most effective enhancers of mem and learning have what in common?

A

they all ELEVATE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

74
Q

how does glucose enhance memory?

A

brain needs constant glucose supply in order to function

elevated blood glucose levels permit MORE GLUCOSE TO ENTER NEURONS

this in turn stimulates an increase in ACETYLCHOLINE RELEASE (excitatory NT)

increased acetylcholine levels = cognitive enhancement

75
Q

glucose increases memory pathway

A

epinephrine > elevated glucose (brain needs constant glucose) > acetylcholine release (excitatory)

acetylcholine enhances cognitive function

76
Q

glucose and memory: Alzheimer’s and AIDS

A

severe memory deficits observed in Alzheimer’s patients and AIDS correlate with MARKED REDUCTION in neurons that secrete ACETYLCHOLINE

77
Q

glucose and epinephrine memory hypothesis: lemonade experiment SETUP

A

elderly people drank glass of LEMONADE

either prepared with SACCHARINE or GLUCOSE

78
Q

glucose and epinephrine memory hypothesis: lemonade experiment RESULTS

A

elders who drank the glucose lemonade showed IMPROVED MEMORY FUNCTION relative to those who drank the saccharine lemonade

this WASN’T REPLICATED in YOUNGER PARTICIPANTS

79
Q

glucose and epinephrine memory hypothesis: lemonade experiment - why were results only present in elders?

A

elderly people often have PROBLEMS REGULATING their BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS

normal decline in memory function during aging may reflect a diminishing ability to regulate blood glucose levels

80
Q

glucose and epinephrine memory hypothesis: lemonade experiment - normal decline in memory function may reflect…

A

a DIMINISHING ABILITY to regulate BLOOD GLUCOSE levels

81
Q

if unrelated blood glucose levels interfere with learning, then…

A

diabetics should display LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

and they do

although relationship between glucose regulation and cognitive impairment is well established, the association with insulin-dependent diabetes is not

82
Q

cognitive effects of diabetes (in relation to glucose)

A
  1. most pronounced in older people, but also observed in young adult diabetics
  2. VERBAL MEMORY is most affected
  3. in Type 1 (insulin-dependent), cognitive impairments are linked with CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA and recurrence of HYPOGLYCEMIA
  4. in Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent), onset of cognitive impairments could reflect DISRUPTIONS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM or related problems (hyperglycemia, insulin concentration changes, hypertension, lipid level changes)
83
Q

both types of diabetes negatively affect…

A

verbal reasoning

numerical reasoning

attention

concentration

verbal memory

visual memory

verbal fluency

84
Q

diabetes may increase risk of…

A

dementia

impaired insulin signalling proposed as important in development of Alzheimer’s

85
Q

type 3 diabetes

A

Alzheimer’s

impaired insulin signalling proposed as important in development of Alzheimer’s

86
Q

why is Alzheimer’s called type 3 diabetes?

A

because its development has been linked to glucose signalling

because of glucose’s involvement in acetylcholine release and therefore cognitive abilities

since Alzheimer’s is defined by cognitive decline

87
Q

where in the brain are insulin receptors most concentrated?

A

hippocampus

cortex

88
Q

despite insulin not being needed for neuronal glucose uptake…

A

activation of brain insulin receptors are CORRELATED WITH ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

abnormal insulin levels and reduced numbers of brain insulin receptors are common in Alzheimer’s patients with severe memory impairments

89
Q

glucose use/metabolism in Alzheimer’s patients…

A

is reduced

90
Q

regional glucose metabolism is observed in specific brain regions associated with…

A

memory in Alzheimer’s patients

EARLY DECREASES in cortical GLUCOSE utilization correspond to the same regions that later demonstrate the GREATEST DENSITY or senile PLAQUES and TANGLES

91
Q

when considering the data on glucose and memory and Alzheimer’s together…

A
  1. glucose can enhance learning and memory
  2. impaired glucose metabolism can result in memory problems associated with Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia
92
Q

glucocorticoids and memory

A

memory can be enhanced by stressful events

acute stress appears to promote lasting memories, as does treatment with glucocorticoids

but chronic stress has opposite effects

93
Q

memory and glucocorticoid treatment

A

treatment with glucocorticoids can promote lasting memories

glucocorticoid treatment prior to LEARNING WORDS/PICTURES improves recall on subsequent memory tests

but CHRONIC STRESS has opposite effects

94
Q

brief versus chronic glucocorticoid exposure - learning/memory effects

A

BRIEF exposure to glucocorticoids (corticosterone or cortisol) ENHANCES learning/memory

CHRONIC exposure to glucocorticoids functions as an AMNESIAC

(back to the u-shaped curve idea)

95
Q

morris water maze

A

rats must swim to find a submerged platform

finding the platform requires RELATIONAL LEARNING, because there are CUES to guide navigation

with time, rats learn to swim directly to the platform

96
Q

morris water maze: glucocorticoids and learning/memory SETUP

A

three conditions

group 1: test 2 mins after electric shock

group 2: test 30 mins after electric shock

group 3: test 4 hours after electric shock

97
Q

morris water maze: glucocorticoids and learning/memory RESULTS

A

because electric shocks resulted in ELEVATED CIRCULATING GLUCOCORTICOIDS about 30 mins later…

they caused stress and impaired memory performance

results suggest that elevated glucocorticoid concentrations at time of memory assessment impair performance

98
Q

morris water maze: glucocorticoids and learning/memory TAKEAWAY

A

worst results came in group 2 (testing 30 mins after shock)

suggests that glucocorticoid release at time of memory assessment IMPAIRS performance

99
Q

morris water maze: glucocorticoids and learning/memory - what improved performance?

A

treatment with a GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST

directly into the dorsal hippocampus

100
Q

chronically stressed animals and errors

A

chronic stress in animals causes them to commit MORE ERRORS

rats with highest corticosterone concentrations commit most errors Morris water maze

101
Q

long-term corticosterone treatment and spatial learning

A

in rats, long-term corticosterone treatment IMPAIRS spatial learning in rats in variety of testing situations

102
Q

glucocorticoids: improvements in learning and memory

A

sometimes, ACUTE stress ENHANCES performance on learning/memory tasks

103
Q

improvements: glucocorticoids appear involved in both…

A
  1. hippocampus-dependent learning and memory
  2. hippocampus-independent learning and memory
104
Q

single injections of natural or synthetic glucocorticoids…

A

mimic acute stress

tend to facilitate memory consolidation

105
Q

natural or synthetic glucocorticoid example

A

dexamethasone

106
Q

when are GRs activated by corticosterone?

A

typically only when CONCENTRATIONS ARE ELEVATED

like during ACUTE stressful EVENTS or during the CIRCADIAN PEAK of glucose secretion

107
Q

evidence for idea that GRs are only activated by corticosterone when concentrations are elevated

A
  1. blocking specifically GRs causes IMPAIRED PERFORMANCE on spatial memory tasks in rats
  2. enhancing effects of either acute stress or corticosterone treatment on memory for a passive avoidance task could be BLOCKED BY BLOCKING GRs in day-old chicks
  3. mice lacking GENE for GRs have substantial MEMORY DEFICITS
108
Q

blocking GRs completely leads to…

A

memory impairments

ie. blocking intentionally, or in animals without the GR gene

109
Q

glucocorticoids and memory enhancement: amygdala

A

memory-enhancing effects of glucocorticoids involve the AMYGDALA

amygdala modulates memory CONSOLIDATION process that occurs elsewhere in brain

basolateral amygdala integrates hormonal info that signals the hippocampus and other brain regions involved in memory consolidation

specific LESIONS of basolateral amygdala BLOCK memory-facilitating effects of glucocorticoids

infusions of GR-blocking DRUGS directly into basolateral amygdala impair memory consolidation

110
Q

basolateral amygdala

A

INTEGRATES HORMONAL info that signals HIPPOCAMPUS and other brain areas involved in MEMORY CONSOLIDATION

111
Q

lesions in basolateral amygdala

A

block the memory-facilitating effects of glucocorticoids

112
Q

infusions of GR-blocking drugs directly into basolateral amygdala

A

impair memory consolidation

113
Q

what does corticosterone do to the hippocampus?

A

restructures it

also affects other parts of the hippocampal circuit

ie. reductions in neuro-plasticity, spine density

114
Q

hippocampus contains highest density of what in the brain? and why?

A

highest density of GRs

helps it mediate the regulation of the HPA axis

115
Q

chronic stress hippocampus effects

A

chronic stress (thus high corticosterone)…

decreases number of PYRAMIDAL CELLS in hippocampus

116
Q

low corticosterone hippocampus effects

A

somewhat paradoxical

cause DEGENERATION in dentate gyrus of hippocampus

(u-shaped curve)

117
Q

Cushing syndorome

A

when adrenal glands produce EXCESSIVE CORTISOL

causes REDUCED HIPPOCAMPAL volume

118
Q

2 examples of conditions resulting from altered glucocorticoid concentrations

A
  1. Cushing syndrome
  2. Addison disease
119
Q

Addison disease

A

when adrenal glands produce INSUFFICIENT CORTISOL

causes necrosis of the GRANULE CELLS in the HIPPOCAMPUS

120
Q

Addison and Cushing disease once more exemplify…

A

the u-shaped curve

Cushing = excessive cortisol = bad for hippocampus

Addison = not enough cortisol = bad for hippocampus

121
Q

overview and potential future directions in behavioural endocrinology

A
  1. research in behavioural endocrinology informs EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES surrounding ultimate (“why”) questions by providing the proximate (“how”) explanations
  2. need for more HORMONAL ASSAY research, LONGITUDINAL designs, and experimental designs with EXOGENOUS HORMONE ADMINISTRATION
  3. more CROSS-CULTURAL research could illustrate important HORMONE INTERACTIONS with ENVIRONMENT, or REPLICATE key findings
  4. exploring complex REGULATORY NETWORKS that connect NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEMS and their connection with OTHER physiological systems (immune and metabolic systems)
  5. behavioural endocrinology research typically focuses on a SINGLE HORMONE’S influence on a given trait, but physiological systems are INTERCONNECTED

Psyc 342 (10 decks)

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