lecture exam 4 Flashcards
muscular system: explain the internal structure of skeletal muscle
- epimysium: the outer most layer/membrane covering the whole muscle structure
- perimysium: membrane of the fascicle ( bundles of muscle fibers )
- endomysium: the membrane of individual muscle fibers
- sarcolemma: membrane of the individual muscle cell
- myofibril: smaller units within muscle fiber
- actin and myosin: thick and thin myofilaments
- sarcomere: actin and myosin ( the functional unit )
muscular system: What are actin and myosin?
- Actin: thin filament
- Myosin: thick filament
muscular system: what starts the muscle contraction process starting with the axon? ( step 1 muscle contraction process)
- axon terminal shoots out acetylcholine into the sarcolemma and binds to sarcolemma receptors
muscular system: what happens after the axon releases acetylcholine that binds to sarcolemma receptors? ( step 2 muscle contraction process)
- action potential travels along sarcolemma and down into the transverse tubules
muscular system:what happens after the action potential traveled down the sarcolemma and into the transverse tubules? ( step 3 muscle contraction process)
- once at the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium is released
muscular system: what happens after the action potential triggering the release of calcium? ( step 4 muscle contraction process)
- Calcium will bind with troponin, Troponin will interact with tropomyosin and that exposes the active site and the myosin head will form the cross bridge
muscular system: what happens after Ca+ binding with troponin and myosin head creating cross bridge? ( step 5 muscle contraction process)
- Myosin head will swivel and contraction (shortening) will occur
muscular system: what happens after swimming myosin head contracts? ( step 6 muscle contraction)
- ATP will allow the myosin head to release and re-grab the actin
muscular system: what happens after ATP attaches to myosin head for release/re-grab actin?
- Once action potential stops (no Ach), then Ca is reabsorbed the troponin moves the tropomyosin and will block the active site on the actin (muscle relaxed)
muscular system: how does the nervous system interact with skeletal muscle?
- action potentials sent by neurons sending chemical messages to the myofilaments of the muscle
- ” End of the neuron releases a chemical (acetylcholine) that will bind to receptors on the sarcolemma “
muscular system: what role does an action potential have to the process of muscle contraction?
- action potential releases acetylcholine, sending chemical signal for contraction, one action potential stops and calcium ions is reabsorbed by troponin and moves tropomyosin causing muscle is relaxed
muscular system: what role does ATP have in the process of muscle contraction?
- ATP will allow the myosin head to
release and re-grab the actin - made by anaerobic and aerobic respiration
msucular system: What are the different ways ATP can be made?
- aerobic respiration
-requires oxygen
-requires mitochondria
-requires time
-most efficient way to generate ATP long term
-Glycogen –stored glucose (75% of all glycogen in the body is stores in muscle) - anaerobic respiration
- muscles can shift to anaerobic
glycolysis.
-during prolonged or heavy exercise
when the supply of oxygen to the
mitochondria is just not enough - no oxygen needed BUT not as efficient
-lactic acid is made (this will need to be processed)
-undergo oxygen debt
- muscles can shift to anaerobic
respiratory system: what is the function of respiration?
- get oxygen (O2) from the environment
- release carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
body
respiratory systems: what is diffusion?
- diffusion of gases across a membrane
-differences in concentration are important
respiratory systems: how is surface area connected to diffusion?
- surface area correlates to amount/quality of diffusion
-larger surface for better exchange
respiratory systems: what other ways can rate of diffusion be increased?
- reducing the thickness of the barrier of diffusion
-simple versus stratified epithelial tissue - Pressure differences between the different sides of the membrane (pumping mechanisms - ventilation)
-becomes increasingly important in water environments with low O2 partial pressure
respiratory systems: what is cellular respiration?
- energy from food
-oxygen is the final electron acceptor in this process - internal and external respiration
respiratory systems: What is external respiration?
- external respiration: exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and it’s environment across a respiratory surface
- at skin surface
- gills
- lungs
respiratory systems: what is internal respiration?
- internal respiration: gases exchanged with tissues throughout the body
- with the help of the circulatory system
respiratory systems: in what ways does an aquatic environment or an air environment impact gas exchange?
-air contains more oxygen and the amount usually doesn’t vary much
* water –less in amount and greater variation
-gas molecules diffuse more rapidly in air than water
* aquatic animals must have pretty efficient ways of removing oxygen from water
-respiratory surfaces must be thin and moist
* benefit to aquatic animals
* air breathers –internal structures and development of pumping mechanisms
respiratory systems: what is the difference between evagination and invagination?
- aquatic respiration: evagination of structures
-external gills are evaginated from the body and project directly into the environmental medium
internal gills are evaginated from the body and project into a superficial body cavity, through which the environmental medium is pumped - air respiration: invagination of structures
- lungs are invaginated from the body and contain an environmental medium
respiratory systems: what is gas exchange by direct diffusion?
- cutaneous respiration
-relies on surface area
-can supplement other forms of breathing
-larger animals must have other structures- gills
- trachea
- lungs
respiratory system: what is beneficial about gills compared to that of diffusion through your body surface?
- gills: branchia
- increased surface area and exposure to water
- less systems to go through and superficial surface area is best for diffusion
respiratory systems: explain countercurrent flow
-countercurrent mechanisms
-blood flow is the opposite of flow of water across gills
-provides the greatest chance of oxygen diffusion due to differences in
concentration
respiratory systems: explain ventilation systems
- active ventilation
-pumping water over the gills (buccal pumping)
-operculum closed and water drawn into mouth
-mouth then closes, operculum opens and water moves over gills
-ram ventilation
-active fish (herring, mackerel, yellowfin tuna)
-always moving forward to move more water over gills
respiratory systems: what role does the operculum have in ventilation?
- operculum closed and water drawn into mouth
respiratory systems: compare the respiratory systems of those who use aquatic respiration versus those who use air respiration
- aquatic animals achieve better diffusion though thinner barrier ( simple squamous vs stratified epithelium )
respiratory systems: what do insects use for gas exchange?
- tracheae: branching system of tubes that extend throughout the body
- insects and other terrestrial arthropods
- at the end branches are tracheoles which go to each cell
- air enters and exits through spiracles (valve)
respiratory systems: what are lungs and the characteristics?
- internal structures in one particular area
- air breathing vertebrates
- highly vascularized
- circulatory system responsible for moving the O2 and CO2 around the body
- ventilated (pressure/pumping mechanism) to get air in and out
1.) amphibian lungs - relatively simple open spaces
- sufficient to meet lower metabolic demands of amphibians and reptiles
2.) mammalian lungs - millions of small sacs called alveoli
- surface area 50-90 m21000km of capillaries
respiratory systems: what system/organs/structures are involved in respirations?
- nostrils
- nasal chamber
- pharynx
- glottis
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
-bronchioles
-alveolar ducts - alveoli
respiratory systems: what is a disadvantage of mammalian lungs?
- in mammalian lungs, because both parts of gas exchange is occurring in the same space, lung ventilation is actually very inefficient (we don’t get all used air out before new air comes in)
-only 1/6 of air is replenished
respiratory systems: what is ventilation?
- getting the air in and out
- this can be done in different ways
1.) positive Pressure
-breathing: frogs - air pushed in
2. )negative Pressure - breathing: mammals
- air drawn in
- air Sacs: birds
respiratory systems: what is positive pressure breathing?
- they do not have a diaphragm
- air into mouth through nostrils
- close mouth and raise the floor of the mouth→push air into the lungs
- positive pressure: forces the air into the lungs
respiratory systems: what is negative pressure breathing?
- during inspiration, the thoracic cavity expands
- increases the volume of the space and lowers pressure in the space
- atmospheric pressure higher
- air is drawn into the lungs
-during exhalation, the space gets smaller
respiratory systems: how do birds breathe?
- improved efficiency because of system of air sacs
- a one way flow of air
- gas exchange still only occurs in the lungs
- meets the high metabolic demand of flight
circulatory systems: what is the function of the circulatory system?
-transports material to and from the cells (nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones)
- for most animals, blood is transported and is done with vessels.
- other jobs: dealing with pressure changes, temperature regulation
circulatory system: what is hemolymph and what type of circulatory system moves hemolymph?
- hemolymph is the circulatory fluid
- open circulatory system
circulatory system: what is an open circulatory system?
- no distinction between “blood” and the interstitial fluid
- no small blood vessels of capillaries for exchange at the cells
- pumped by heart (or tubular muscle)
- hemolymph is the circulatory fluid
- makes up 20-40% of body volume
- examples: Molluscs, arthropods
-terrestrial arthropods don’t use this for gas exchange
circulatory system: what is a closed circulatory system?
- blood is pumped by heart(s)
- blood is confined to vessels that return it to the heart(s)
- examples: Annelids, cephalopod molluscs and all vertebrates
circulatory system: what are differences between the difference types of vessels?
- arteries move blood AWAY from the heart
- arterioles narrow/smaller arteries
- capillaries = exchange with cells (nutrients, metabolic wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide)
- venules = narrowed/smaller veins
- veins move blood back TOWARDS the heart
circulatory system: how is the lymphatic system involved in the circulatory system?
- because the pressure at the
capillaries –often a net loss of
fluid - lymphatic system recovers
much of this and returns it to
circulation
circulatory systems: what are two chambered heart systems and characteristics?
-evolved first in fish (cartilaginous, bony)
- increases the efficiency of circulation to gills (where oxygenation can occur)
- first chamber: Atrium
- second chamber: Ventricle (pump)
- blood flow: Conus arteriosus →Gills →Body →Sinus venosus →Atrium →Ventricle →Conus arteriosus
- single circulation: blood passes through heart only once
circulatory system: what are the characteristics of double circulation?
- with the evolution of lungs, vertebrates developed double circulation system
- through the heart two times
- systemic circuit to/from the body
- oxygenated blood to the capillary beds of body
- pulmonary circuit to and from the lungs
- to and from capillary beds of the lungs
circulatory system: what is a three chambered heart systems and characteristics?
- evolved in amphibians (and found in
most reptiles) - heart: 2 artia, 1 ventricle
- right atrium: receives deoxygenated
blood from the body - left atrium: receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs - some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle
-blood Flow: Right atrium→
ventricle→lungs→left atrium
→ventricle→body→right atrium - reptiles (Chelonian and Squamates) -
septum partially divides the ventricle - less mixing in the ventricle
- septum is complete in crocodilians –
true 4 chambered heart
circulatory systems: what are four chambered heart systems and characteristics?
- mammals, birds, crocodilians
- heart: 2 artia, 2 ventricles
- right atrium: receives deoxygenated
blood from the body - left atrium: receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs
-NO mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood in the ventricles - separate pressures –high systemic
pressure without damage created to
the pulmonary tissues
circulatory system: what are characteristics of crocodilian heart systems?
- blood flow out of the heart differs slightly based on air breathing or diving
- increase in systemic blood flow over pulmonary blood flow when fresh air is
it’s unavailable
circulatory systems: what are characteristics of birds and mammals four chambered heart systems? what one characteristic crocodilian hearts have that mammalian and bird hearts lack?
- unlike the crocodilians –birds and mammals do not have shunting depending on changing ventilation rates
- birds and mammals would have to make other physiological changes
- muscles anaerobic
- energy conservation
- blood shunted to priority organs (microcirculation shifts)
circulatory systems: what is the blood flow for four chambered mammalian heart?
Right atrium→right ventricle→pulmonary artery→lungs→pulmonary veins→left atrium →left ventricle→body→Superior vena cava and Inferior vena cava→right atrium
circulatory system: what are some of the structures and characteristics in four chambered mammalian hearts?
- valves
-Atrioventricular valves
- left (bicuspid)
- right (tricuspid) - Semilunar valves ( prevent back flow)
-Aortic
- Pulmonary - differences in the ventricle walls
- Contraction = systole
- Relaxation = diastole
nervous system: what is the function of the nervous system?
-functions
1. sensory information (from outside or inside of body)
2. processes that information
3. provides responses (motor)
- ability to respond to environmental stimuli
- system in place for cells to work together to do so
nervous system: what are the cells of the nervous system?
- neurons
- glial cells
nervous system: how is the nervous system organized?
- Central Nervous System
- brain and spinal cord
- responsible for the PROCESSING - Peripheral Nervous System
- everything else, ganglia, nerves
- responsible for bringing information IN and sending
responses OUT
nervous system: what kinds of neurons are used in
the different functions?
- afferent or sensory
- interneurons
- efferent or motor
nervous system: what function of afferent or sensory neurons?
- sensory information to the CNS
nervous system: where are interneurons found? what is their function?
- only found in the central nervous system
- processing
- make up most of all neurons
nervous system:what do efferent or motor neurons do?
- response information from the CNS
nervous system: what do glial cells do for neurons?
- Central Nervous System
- Oligodendrocytes
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal Cells - Peripheral Nervous System
- Schwann Cells
- Satellite Cells
nervous system: explain, in general, how neurons work and what role a synapse has in their function?
- negative charge inside the cell and positive outside
(resting membrane potential) - stimulus will change membrane permeability. Allows ions to rush in creating the action potential
- all of none
- high rate or frequency →greater level of excitation
nervous system: what do chemical elements do in a neuron?
- Sodium (Na+) ions and Potassium (K+) ions
-Na+ wants in badly change in membrane permeability
-Na+/K+ pump will return the cell back to resting action potential - much more complicated process
nervous system: connect the nervous system to the muscular system
- neurons send Acetylcholine to the terminal and pre synaptic and send the ACH to the sarcolemma
nervous system: what is the function of myelin sheath?
- just like a wave, the action potential can weaken over the length of the axon
- re-amplified at each Node of Ranvier, essentially jumping from gap to gap
- with myelin, it’s much faster
nervous system: what organisms are examples of invertebrate nervous system? what are the characteristics
- cnidaria (radiates) –nerve net under epidermis. Simple
receptors activated. Signal spreads throughout net - echinoderms have nerve nets and nerves (neurons bundled up)
- flatworms (bilateral nervous system) –2 anterior ganglia then two nerve cords and lateral branches
- annelids –brain, double nerve cords, and supplemental ganglia (afferent and efferent neurons)
- molluscs: 3 pairs of ganglia
- cephalopods: g
- arthropods –similar to Annelids
1. Ganglia more developed
2. Ventral nerve cord
3. Mushroom bodies –brain regions associated with learning
4. Larger in social insects reatly enlarged ganglia making for complex nervous centers, increases capability→learning
nervous system: vertebrae nervous system characteristics
- dorsal nerve cord with large neural mass (brain)
- centralized
1. central Nervous System- Brain
*Spinal Cord- peripheral Nervous System
- Brain
- increase in size, configuration, and functional capacity = encephalization
- Fast responses
- Storage
- Complexity
- Flexibility
nervous system: vertebrate brains - hindbrain
- medulla oblongata (medulla):
- vital activities –heart, respiratory function
- integration of feeding information - pons
- connects cerebellum with other area - cerebellum
- coordination of motion
- vast differences between vertebrates
- less developed for amphibians and nonavian reptiles
- well developed in agile bony fish, birds, and mammals
- mammals with increased dexterity have complex cerebellum
nervous system: Vertebrate Brains - Midbrain
- including optic lobe –nuclei that are visual and
auditory reflex centers (mammals this is within
the cerebrum) - fish and amphibians –integrates visual, tactile
and auditory information - mammals –Relay center, for visual and auditory
information
digestive system: what is the function of the digestive system?
- mechanical and chemical (or both) breakdown of nutrient rich material into smaller pieces for absorption
- three types of digestion
1. mechanical digestion
2. chemical digestion
3. absorption
digestive system: how do unicellular organisms accomplish digestion?
- usually digestion isn’t needed
- nutrients are directly absorbed into cells
- protists - some will capture particles in food vacuoles
- lysosomes will provide the enzymes to digest the material
- paramecium
digestive system: what is intracellular digestion?
- unicellular eukaryotes and sponges
- particles into vacuole
- enzymes added
- nutrients absorbed into cytoplasm
- each cell must be able to generate the enzymes needed and absorb products
digestive system: what is extracellular digestion?
- within the open part (lumen) of a digestive tube
- certain cells secret material for chemical digestion
- other cells absorb
- many organisms use both
- arthropods and vertebrates use only extracellular digestion
digestive system: what is a complete and incomplete digestive tract?
- incomplete digestive tract: single opening mouth/anus
- complete digestive tract: mouth and anus, usually separated from the outer body wall
- Alimentary canal
digestive system: what are the functions of the alimentary canal?
- reception
- conduction and storage
- grinding and early digestion
- terminal digestion and absorption
- water absorption and concentration of solids
digestive system: what are the structures of the alimentary canal?
- Mouth and Pharynx: entry
- Esophagus: movement to stomach
- Crop: temporary storage
- Gizzard: grinding
- Stomach: digestion
-Intestines: digestion and absorption - Cloaca, rectum, or anus: expel waste
digestive system: what are the associated structures of the alimentary canal?
- Salivary glands
- secretion of digestive enzymes and lubricate food - Pancreas
- secretion of digestive enzymes into intestines - Liver
- secretion of bile (FA breakdown) - Gallbladder
- concentrates bile
- cecum
- connected to intestine.
- where the bacteria are to break down plant matter
digestive system: what does it mean to be a suspension feeder or a filter feeder?
- suspension feeding
- using ciliated surfaces to create a current bringing in food particles into mouths
- trap food on sheets of mucus move food to digestive tract or trap food and move to mouth - filter feeder
- type of suspension feeding
- additional modification that works as a filtering device to strain food
from water- Baleen –made of keratin
- Gill rakers
digestive system: what are some examples of invertebrate mouthparts and what are they used for?
- collection of food
- suspension feeding, filter feeding, deposit feeding
- Rotifer example: using wheel organ to create a current - scape food off of surfaces
- Radula of snails
- Sea urchin - no true teeth but many have structures that allow them to hold or bite prey.
- structures for crushing and tearing
-examples- Chelipeds in crustaceans
- Mandibles in wasps
- Beaks in squid
- deliver toxins to prey
- inject digestive enzymes
- example: Chelicera with fang that has a duct from venom gland
digestive system: what is pleurodont tooth attachment?
-ancestral form
- one side of root is fixed to indents in the lingual/medial side of the jawbone
- attached with collagenous fibers or cement
- some reptiles
- example: lizards
digestive system: what is acrodont tooth attachment?
- fused to the rim of the jawbone
- highest tooth”
- no roots
- frogs, some reptiles (lizards), bony fish
digestive system: what is thecodont tooth attachment?
- roots held in sockets in the jawbone
- case” or “capsule”
- Mammals, Crocodilians
digestive system: what is tooth replacement and why is it important?
- function: Accommodate growth, wear, and tear, loss
- new tooth bud forms under mature tooth
- new tooth large enough, the roots of the old tooth are reabsorbed
- some are never replaced (acrodonts)
digestive system: what is a polyphyodont ( tooth replacement)?
- polyphyodont: replaced continuously
- most toothed fishes, many reptiles
- manatees, elephants, kangaroos
digestive system: what are diphyodont ( tooth replacement) ?
- diphyodont: two generations of teeth
- first –deciduous in early life. No molars
- most mammals
digestive system: what is the difference between a homodont versus a heterodont?
- homodont: the same teeth
- heterodont: different teeth
digestive system: what are the functional characteristics of mammalian teeth?
- chewing food
- speeds digestion
- special mouth morphology and dentition needed
- articulated jaw
- cheeks
- mobile Tongue
- specialized teeth (heterodont)
digestive system: what are some types of mammalian teeth?
- incisors: biting, cutting, stripping
- canines: piercing, tearing, holding
- premolars: grinding and crushing
- molars: grinding and crushing
-modifications based on diet
digestive system: what is mastication and prehension? how many time do herbivores chew a day?
- mastication: chewing, increases surface area
- carnivores –small enough to swallow
- herbivores: continuously chew 40,000-50,000 times/day
*prehension: using body part to bring food to mouth
digestive system: what do the structures of the alimentary canal do? ( food digestion process)
- mouth: receives food
- mechanical digestion
- chemical digestion
- amylase - pharynx: connection to esophagus
- esophagus: tube to the stomach
- peristalsis
- mucus but no chemical digestion
-for most vertebrates who swallow food whole, it must be able to expand - crop: Stores food until it can enter stomach or gizzard
- vertebrates –only birds - stomach: chemical and mechanical digestion
- rugae - gizzard: Mechanical digestion
- using grit or stones (birds)
- horny plates (insects, mollusks) - proventriculus
-birds: first part of stomach
*glandular
* chemical digestion
- insects: expansion of the esophagus
* muscular for grinding
* mechanical digestion
digestive system: what do the structures of the alimentary canal do? 8-11
- intestines
- length will vary depending on the diet
- enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats
- nutrient absorption
- lined with villi and microvilli
- increases absorption
- many accessory structures will add in contents - large intestine (colon)
- water reabsorption and remaining nutrients
- water absorption and excretion - rectum (vertebrates and insects)
- stores and compresses waste - cloaca (amphibians, birds, reptiles)
- opening for all excretion and reproduction
- anus
- opening for solid waste excretion only
digestive system: what does the length of the intestines tell us about the diet of the organism?
- compared to plant matter, protein(meat) is much
easier to chemically digest - less protein in diet, the longer the digestive tract
digestive system: what are nonruminant herbivore?
- nonruminant: simple stomach, large cecum ( rabbit)
- monogastric stomach
- releasing enzyme themselves
- lack of nutrient absorption
- commonly will also utilize coprophagy
digestive system: what are ruminant herbivore?
- ruminant: four chambered heart, with large rumen, long small and large intestine
- microorganisms in rumen are digesting
- chambered stomach to max efficiency
- rumination (cud chewing)
- evolved only one time
digestive system: what animals have a rumen stomach system? how many chambers does the rumen have and what are the called?
- deer, moose, elk, giraffe, cow, sheep
- camels, llamas (no omasum)
1. chambers - rumen
- reticulum
- omasum
- abomasum
digestive system: what is a rumen stomach system?
- large space, filled with bacteria that breakdown material
-10 billion cells, 200 species - reverse peristalsis can occur
- fermentation creates gas that is belched out
