Lecture 8 Flashcards
Non-associative learning
Behaviour toward a stimulus changes without any apparent associated stimulus or event.
- Habituation and sensitisation are non-associative.
Associative learning
Behaviour is shaped by the learned relationship between (unrelated) stimuli/events/entitites.
Acquisition
The phase during classical conditioning where the US is paired with the CS.
Extinction (classical conditioning)
the CS is presented without the US. The CR will weaken after a while.
Spontaneous recovery
In a situation where extinction should take place, sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs: the CS will again lead to the CR.
Pavlov’s opinion on spontaneous recovery
The CS-US relationship remains intact while a second inhibitory connection is formed when the CS is no longer presented with the US.
Recent works opinion on spontaneous recovery
There are indeed opposing excitatory and inhibitory processes. Therefore, the CS has essentially become ambiguous.
Generalisation (classical conditioning)
The CR evoked by the CS generalises to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
Discrimination training (classical conditioning)
Two quite similar stimuli are presented, but only one is followed by an US. The participant can learn to discriminate between two similar stimuli, which allows one to asses perceptual abilities that are difficult to test verbally.
Second order conditioning
After conditioning, when a CS produces a reliable CR, a new neutral stimulus can be coupled with the original CR - which is now the new US - to produce the CR.
Biological preparedness
A natural tendency to learn certain kinds of associations over others.
Rescorla-Wagner model
The (salient) CS has to be a good predictor of the US for the two to become associated.
Operant conditioning
Voluntary behaviour is rewarded or punished - the consequences of an organisms behaviour determine whether it will be repeated in the future.
Law of effect
A response that leads to a ‘satisfactory state of affairs’ is more likely to be repeated.
Examples of primary reinforcers
- Natural stimulus.
- Directly tied to biological needs.
- Does not need to be learned.
E.g., providing a meal, building a house, taking away pain, relieving stress.
Examples of secondary reinforcers
- Neutral stimulus
- Only tied to biological needs through association.
- Needs to be learned.
E.g., providing money, providing saving stamps, taking your barking dog inside the house.
Overjustification effect
An expected external incentive (money, praise) decreases intrinsic motivation to perform a task.
Motivational crowding out
The effect of offering a reward for certain behaviour that was previously unrewarded shifts motivation towards reward.
For punishment to be most effective
It should:
- Be relatively intense
- Follow the behaviour closely in time.
- Not be associated with positive reinforcement.
Examples of primary punishers
- Physical torture
- Inducing stress
- Removing food
Examples of secondary punishers
- Giving a poor exam grade
- Scratch someone’s car
- Take away computer privileges
- Withholding pocket money
Ratio schedules
- Fixed ratio: reinforcement after n responses. Leads to a high number of responses with post reinforcement pause.
- Variable ration: reinforcement after n response on average. Leads to a high number of responses with no pauses.
Interval schedules
- Fixed interval: reinforcement after n minutes. Leads to increased response rate when time of reinforcement approaches.
- Variable interval: reinforcement after n minutes on average.
Intermittent reinforcement
Produces behaviour that is more resistant against extinction.
Superstitious behaviour
Reinforcer is attributed to non-causal accidental behaviour.
E.g., a rat immersed in an interval reinforcement procedure faced the corner before food was delivered and now repeats that behaviour.
Brain areas effected during classical conditioning
- Nucleus accumbens (medial forebrain bundle)
- Hypothalamus
Dopamine related brain structures that are active in behaviours that produce pleasure.
Latent learning
Something is learned but not manifested as a behaviour change until some time in the future.
Observational learning
Learning takes place by watching the actions of others.
Role of cognition in operant conditioning
- Watson: believed the mind should be ignored completely.
- Skinner: acknoweldged the importance of mental states but believed that the focus should be on observable behaviour.
- Tolman: strong supported a cognitive approach to operant conditioning and argued that animals must learn to navigate in space and find necessities.
