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PSYC 304 > Lecture 7: Emotional Development > Flashcards

Lecture 7: Emotional Development Flashcards

1
Q

emotions

A

a combination of physiological and cognitive responses to experiences

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2
Q

what responses are involved in emotional experiences?

A
  • Neural response
  • Physiological factors
  • Subjective feelings
  • Emotional expression
  • Urge to take action
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3
Q

examples of neural responses

A

amygdala activation & the release of cortisol and adrenaline

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4
Q

examples of physiological factors

A

heart racing & nausea

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5
Q

examples of subjective feelings

A

recognition of danger & feeling of fear

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6
Q

examples of emotional expression

A

eyes wide, eyebrows raised & mouth pulled back

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7
Q

examples of the urge to take action

A

run away & lock the door

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8
Q

discrete emotions theory

A

Neurological and biological systems have evolved to allow humans to experience and express a set of innate, basic emotions

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9
Q

basic emotions

A

innate emotions that were important for survival and communication and thus largely automatic

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10
Q

evidence for basic emotions

A
  • Basic emotions are universal across cultures
  • Basic emotions are present from infancy
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11
Q

what are the basic emotions?

A
  • Happiness
  • Fear
  • Anger
  • Sadness
  • Disgust
  • Surprise
    (inside-out characters plus surprise)
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12
Q

beyond basic emotions

A
  • Other emotions develop later and/or are not culturally universal
  • Other emotions are variations in intensity or combinations of basic emotions
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13
Q

how do we know what babies are feeling?

A

Systems of coding facial cues have been developed to make interpretations of infants’ emotions more objective. They link particular facial expressions and facial muscle movements with particular emotions

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14
Q

happiness cues

A

smiling, raising cheeks, eyes squinting

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15
Q

anger cues

A

strongly furrowed brow that comes down in the centre, open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth, flared nostrils

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16
Q

emotions at birth

A

At birth, infants experience 2 general emotional states

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17
Q

what 2 emotional states are present at birth?

A
  • Positive, indicated by approach behaviour
  • Negative/distress, indicated by crying or withdrawal behaviour
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18
Q

emergence of basic emotions

A

Basic emotions emerge in a predictable sequence over the first year of life

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19
Q

why is happiness adaptive?

A

it motivates us to approach situations that are likely to increase chances of survival

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20
Q

when do smiles evoked by biological states first occur?

A

from birth

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21
Q

when do social smiles first occur?

A

2-3 months

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22
Q

when do infants first laugh?

A

5 months

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23
Q

development of the source of happiness

A
  • What makes children smile and laugh changes with cognitive development
  • ex. At 5 months old, they laugh at bodily noises, but at 4 years old, they laugh at jokes
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24
Q

why is anger adaptive?

A

it helps us defend ourselves against threats and to overcome obstacles to our goals

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25
Q

when do infants begin to express anger?

A

4 months

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26
Q

when do infants peak in the tendency to react with anger?

A

24 months

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27
Q

why does the tendency to react with anger decline after 24 months?

A

likely due to kids’ greater ability to express themselves with language and improved emotion regulation skills

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28
Q

matching anger to the situation

A
  • As children get older, they are better able to match anger to the situation
  • They are angrier if a hurtful action is intentional vs. unintentional
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29
Q

what context do social smiles emerge in?

A

usually in interactions with parents

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30
Q

benefit of social smiles

A

promote care from caregivers and foster bonding

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31
Q

why is fear adaptive?

A

it motivates escape from danger or solicits protection from caregivers

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32
Q

when do infants begin to express fear?

A

7 months

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33
Q

when does a fear of strangers and separation anxiety emerge?

A

8 months

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34
Q

when does separation anxiety begin to decline?

A

15 months

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35
Q

development of the source of fear

A

What scares children changes with cognitive development

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36
Q

fear at 3-5-years-old

A

children fear imaginary creatures

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37
Q

fear at 7+-years-old

A

fear related to everyday situations

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38
Q

when do sadness, surprise, and disgust emerge

A

in the first year

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39
Q

function of surprise

A

indicates that the world is working contrary to expectations and is thus important for learning

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40
Q

function of sadness

A

elicits care and comfort from their caregiver in reaction to a loss

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41
Q

what is necessary for the emergence of sadness?

A

object permanence

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42
Q

what usually causes sadness in infants?

A

being separated from their parents

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43
Q

why is disgust adaptive?

A

it helps us avoid potential poisons or bacteria

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44
Q

what are the first expressions of disgust directed towards?

A

food

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45
Q

when do self-conscious emotions emerge?

A

once a child has a sense of self as separate from other people & an appreciation of what adults expect of them

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46
Q

when does a sense of self as separate from other people emerge?

A

around 18 months

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47
Q

examples of self-conscious emotions

A

guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, and empathy

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48
Q

when do self-conscious emotions emerge?

A

around 2 years

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49
Q

culture and self-conscious emotions

A

Culture influences the frequency and types of self-conscious emotions that are most likely to be experienced

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50
Q

self-conscious emotions in individualistic cultures

A

more likely to experience pride

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51
Q

self-conscious emotions in collectivist cultures

A

more likely to experience guilt and shame

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52
Q

guilt vs. shame

A
  • Guilt and shame are often elicited by similar situations but are distinct emotional reactions
  • Generally, guilt is healthier than shame
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53
Q

guilt

A

feelings of regret about one’s behaviour associated with the desire to fix the consequences of that behaviour

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54
Q

shame

A

a self-focused feeling of personal failure associated with the desire to hide

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55
Q

when can expressions of guilt and shame be distinguished?

A

around 2 years

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56
Q

guilt and shame in 2-year-olds study

A
  • When 2-year-olds play with a doll that has been rigged so that one leg falls off during play, they show different reactions
  • Guilt: trying to fix the doll and quickly telling the adult about the accident
  • Shame: didn’t try to fix the doll, avoided the adult, and delayed telling them about the accident
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57
Q

parental influence and guilt vs. shame

A
  • The child is more likely to feel guilt if the parent emphasizes the badness of the action
  • The child is more likely to feel shame if the parent experiences the badness of the child
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58
Q

how does emotional recognition begin?

A

Identifying emotions in adults’ faces comes before identifying one’s own emotions

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59
Q

facial recognition at 3 months

A

can distinguish facial expressions of happiness, surprise, and anger
(i.e. habituated to pictures of happy faces and then dishabituate when presented with a picture of a surprised face)

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60
Q

facial recognition at 7 months

A

can distinguish expressions of fear and sadness

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61
Q

social referencing

A

use of parents’ facial expressions and tone of voice to decide how to deal with novel/ambiguous situations

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62
Q

what enables social referencing?

A

Recognizing parents’ emotions

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63
Q

social referencing and the visual cliff study

A
  • 0% of babies cross if the parent looks scared
  • 75% of babies cross if the parent looks happy
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64
Q

social referencing and the visual cliff takeaways

A
  • Children can distinguish between emotional expressions
  • Children rely on parents’ reactions to figure out how to react to a situation themselves (social referencing)
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65
Q

when do children learn to label emotions?

A

3 years

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66
Q

initial emotion labelling abilities

A

are simply described as feeling good or bad

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67
Q

labelling emotions throughout childhood

A

The ability to label emotions improves over early childhood

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68
Q

when do children begin to understand mixed emotions?

A

5 years old

69
Q

when do children begin to understand that a person’s facial expressions do not necessarily match what they’re feeling?

A

5 years old

70
Q

understanding real vs. fake emotions study

A

3- and 5-year-old hear a story about a child forgetting her favourite toy for a sleepover but that she doesn’t want to show how she feels

71
Q

understanding real vs. fake emotions study findings in 3-year-olds

A

think that the child will be showing sadness

72
Q

understanding real vs. fake emotions study findings in 5-year-olds

A

know that the child will be sad but will be showing happiness on her face

73
Q

why do children improve in their abilities to detect fake emotions?

A

greater understanding of display rules

74
Q

display rules

A

Social norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and which emotions are appropriate in a given context

75
Q

why are display rules important?

A

for successful social interactions

76
Q

implications of understanding real vs. fake emotions

A

Understanding false emotions allows children to fake emotions themselves and lie

77
Q

emotional regulation

A

A set of conscious and unconscious processes used to manage emotional experiences and expressions

78
Q

development of emotional regulation

A

Develops gradually during childhood

79
Q

co-regulation

A

parents regulate infants’ distress through soothing or distraction

80
Q

why is co-regulation necessary?

A

because infants cannot regulate their own emotions

81
Q

when do infants begin to show rudimentary emotional regulation skills?

A

5 months

82
Q

how do 5-month-olds regulate their emotions?

A

self-comforting behaviours & self-distraction

83
Q

self-comforting behaviours

A

repetitive actions that create a mildly positive sensation

84
Q

self-distraction

A

looking away from the upsetting stimulus

85
Q

what emotional regulation behaviour do children rely on most in the first few months of life

A

they learn to rely more on self-distraction rather than self-comforting behaviours

86
Q

emotional regulation behaviour in middle childhood

A

Beginning in middle childhood (6-8 years), children also rely on cognitive strategies and problem-solving

87
Q

Children that have good emotional regulation skills:

A
  • Have higher well-being
  • Are more socially skilled and are liked better by their peers and teachers
    (poor regulation skills put kids at risk of being bullied)
  • Do better in school
88
Q

why does emotional regulation improve?

A
  • Motor development
  • Increased parental expectation that child should be able to manage their emotional arousal
  • Cognitive development
89
Q

emotional regulation and motor development

A

Greater ability to control bodily movements enables self-soothing and distraction in infancy

90
Q

parental expectations and emotional regulation

A

Children internalize this expectation and comply

91
Q

cognitive development and emotional regulation

A

Improved attention and inhibition enable better emotional regulation skills

92
Q

adolescents and moodiness and study method

A
  • experience-sampling method
  • Adolescents and adults wore a pager that beeped at random times
  • It reported on mood when it beeped
93
Q

adolescents and moodiness study findings

A
  • adolescents report more frequent high-intensity emotions than adults
  • Both more intense negative and positive emotions
  • Intense moods don’t last as long compared to adults
94
Q

adolescents and moodiness study takeaway

A

Adolescents are indeed more moody than adults

95
Q

emotional changes in adolescents study method

A
  • adolescents rated emotions during each day of the school week for 3 weeks
  • They did this for 5 years
96
Q

emotional changes in adolescents study findings

A
  • Happiness decreases over adolescence
  • Sadness and anxiety increase, especially for girls
  • Anger increases and then decreases towards the end of adolescence
97
Q

emotional changes in adolescents study implications

A
  • Gender differences in emotional experience in adolescents
  • An increase in negative emotions during adolescence is normal
  • Struggles to cope with these changes can lead to the development of depression and anxiety disorders
  • It can be difficult to distinguish between normal changes in adolescents’ emotional experiences vs. mental health issues
98
Q

risk-taking in adolescents

A
  • Impulsivity increases during early adolescence, peaks in middle/late adolescence, and then declines in adulthood
  • This is found across cultures and historical times
99
Q

motor vehicle deaths

A

motor vehicles peak in 21-24-year-olds, and are also very high in 16-20-year-olds

100
Q

why do adolescents take more risks?

A

The result of changes to the limbic system & the prefrontal cortex, both of which are involved in decision-making

101
Q

limbic system

A

involved in emotional and reward processing

102
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

involved in goal-directed behaviour, deliberation, and inhibitory control

103
Q

changes to the limbic system in adolescence

A

Reward processing in the limbic systemic is heightened in adolescence due to the synaptogenesis of dopamine receptors

104
Q

changes to the PFC in adolescence

A

Synaptic pruning and myelination in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) occur until the mid-20s

105
Q

myelination

A

thickening of the myelin sheath surrounding axons, which increases the speed of neural signal transmission

106
Q

what is an immature PFC associated with?

A

difficulties with inhibition, impulse control, and planning

107
Q

implications of risk-taking in adolescence

A
  • Adolescents take more risks because of the maturational imbalance between their limbic system and prefrontal cortex
  • But, risk-taking is also a good thing. It promotes independence by trying new experiences
108
Q

what is nucleus accumbens activation associated with?

A

The degree of nucleus accumbens activation during reward anticipation is positively correlated with self-reported risk-taking in daily life

109
Q

temperament

A

Individual differences in emotion, self-regulation, activity levels, and attention that are consistent over time and across contexts

110
Q

basis of temperament

A

Present from infancy thus thought to be genetically-based

111
Q

why do kids show very different reactions to the same situation?

A

they have different temperaments

112
Q

who described the type approach to temperament?

A

Thomas et al.

113
Q

3 categories of babies in the type approach to temperament

A
  • easy babies
  • difficult babies
  • slow-to-warm-up babies
114
Q

easy babies

A

adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish daily routines, such as sleep and eating, and generally are cheerful in mood and easy to calm

115
Q

what percentage of babies are easy?

A

40%

116
Q

difficult babies

A

slow to adjust to new experiences, tend to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, irregular in their daily routines, and bodily functions

117
Q

what percentage of babies are difficult?

A

10%

118
Q

slow-to-warm-up babies

A

somewhat difficult at first, but become easier over time as they have repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations

119
Q

what percentage of babies are slow-to-warm-up?

A

15%

120
Q

what prompted the dimensional approach to temperament?

A

Many children did not fit into one of Thomas et al.,’s categories

121
Q

5 dimensions of temperament

A
  • smiling and laughing
  • distress (in infancy)/anger (in childhood)
  • fear
  • attention span
  • activity level
122
Q

smiling and laughing

A

positive emotional response to a change in a stimulus

123
Q

Distress (in infancy)/anger (in childhood)

A

negative emotional response related to having an ongoing task interrupted or blocked

124
Q

fear

A

the tendency to experience unease or nervousness in new situations

125
Q

attention span

A

attention to an object or task for an extended period

126
Q

activity level

A

rate and extent of gross motor body movements

127
Q

how is the dimension approach to temperament assessed?

A
  • Parent and/or teacher responses to questions assessing each dimension
  • Observing how kids react to lab tasks designed to assess each dimension
128
Q

consistency of temperament over time

A
  • Temperament is largely consistent/stable over time (influence of genetics)
  • But, some changes in temperament over time are possible (influence of the caregiver)
129
Q

temperament twin studies

A

Identical twins have more similar temperaments than fraternal twins

130
Q

when is changing temperament easiest?

A

when kids are younger

131
Q

implications of temperament

A
  • Children contribute to their emotional development through their temperament
  • Some children are easier to parent than others
132
Q

the influence of family in emotional development

A

Family, especially parents, play a huge role in children’s emotional development

133
Q

how do parents influence emotional development?

A
  • Parent’s expression of emotions (indirect influence on emotional development)
  • Parent’s reactions to children’s emotions (direct influence on emotional development)
134
Q

parents’ expression of emotions

A

Parents’ emotional expressions serve as a model of when and how to express emotions

135
Q

Children who grow up with parents who tend to not show emotions tend to:

A
  • Not express emotions themselves (they learn to see emotions as bad)
  • Have trouble identifying and understanding emotions in themselves and others
  • Struggle with regulating intense emotions
136
Q

Children who grow up with parents who express a high level of positive emotion tend to:

A
  • Express more positive emotions themselves
  • Have higher well-being
  • Have better social skills
137
Q

Children who grow up with parents who express a high level of negative emotion tend to:

A
  • Experience and express more negative emotions themselves
  • Be less socially competent
  • Have poorer emotion regulation skills
138
Q

parents’ reactions to childrens’ emotions

A

Parents’ reactions to their children’s emotions directly influence children’s emotional development

139
Q

mirroring

A
  • Behaviours in which a parent reflects the emotions of their child to them
  • Contingent, quick response to the infant
140
Q

how is mirroring conveyed?

A

Conveyed through verbal and non-verbal cues

141
Q

what characterizes mirroring?

A

warmth

142
Q

why is mirroring important?

A
  • It validates and normalizes the child’s emotions
  • Helps the child identify and understand their emotions
143
Q

still-face paradigm

A

Lab procedure in which a parent goes through a repetitive sequence with their child in which they have
2 minutes to play with the infant & 2 minutes of still face (no reaction to the infant)

144
Q

results of the still-face paradigm

A

Infants quickly become distressed in reaction to still-face and this distress increases with each still-face episode

145
Q

implications of the still-face paradigm

A
  • Infants are attuned to parents’ emotions
  • They are distressed when the parent doesn’t react as expected
  • They often engage in self-distraction
146
Q

emotional coaching

A

The use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with, regulate, and appropriately express emotions

147
Q

emotional coaching across cultures

A

What is seen as appropriate depends on the culture

148
Q

example of emotional coaching

A

“You seem anxious about the test. Let’s walk through the first step that can get us going in the right direction.”

149
Q

Supportive/sensitive reaction

A

-mirroring + emotional coaching
- Is the ideal way to react to children’s emotions

150
Q

why is a supportive reaction important?

A
  • Validates a child’s emotions
  • Helps the child understand their emotions
  • Fosters emotional regulation
  • Associated with higher self-esteem
  • Fosters social competence
  • Associated with better performance in school
151
Q

example of a supportive/sensitive reaction

A

“You seem worried and upset about the test. I sometimes feel the same way when I have a big thing to do at work. Let’s walk through the first step that can get us going in the right direction…”

152
Q

dismissive reaction

A

coaching but no mirroring

153
Q

example of a dismissive reaction

A

“You’re fine. There’s no need to be nervous. You’ll just study and it’ll be ok”

154
Q

over-validating reaction

A

mirroring but no coaching

155
Q

example of an over-validating reaction

A

Parent looks anxious. “OMG! The test is next week! You must be so nervous. You have so much material to study. Where do we even begin?”

156
Q

critical reaction

A

no mirroring or emotional coaching

157
Q

example of a critical reaction

A

In an angry tone. “What’s wrong with you? You always get like this before a test and then you get a bad grade.”

158
Q

implications of lack of supportive/sensitive reaction

A

Children who grow up with parents who habitually do not show a support/sensitive reaction tend to be less emotionally and socially competent

159
Q

why do parents react the way they do?

A
  • cultural differences
  • Generational differences in norms for emotional expression
  • Family reactions to emotions when parents themselves were children (intergenerational transmission of emotional regulation)
  • Parents’ mood and emotions in the moment
160
Q

cultural differences and emotional reactions

A
  • Emotional expression is more encouraged in independent vs. interdependent cultures
  • Reactions to specific emotions differ by culture
161
Q

differential susceptibility hypothesis

A
  • Some children are highly sensitive to both negative and positive environmental conditions
  • Sensitive temperament + negative home environment = negative outcomes
  • Sensitive temperament + positive home environment = positive outcomes
162
Q

what hypothesis is known as the dandelion and orchid theory?

A

the differential susceptibility hypothesis

163
Q

dandelion and orchid theory

A
  • Dandelions are hearty and can live in any conditions (less sensitive temperament)
  • Orchids can only live in certain conditions (sensitive temperament)
164
Q

Children with more difficult/negative temperaments have:

A
  • More behavioural problems if raised with low-quality childcare
  • But, they have the lowest levels of behavioural problems if raised by high-quality childcare
165
Q

Children with impulsive temperaments have:

A
  • Higher levels of alcohol abuse in adolescence if raised in harsh families
  • But, have the lowest levels of alcohol abuse if raised in positive family environments
166
Q

implications of differential susceptibility

A
  • Children’s temperament and the environment they grow up in jointly determine their outcomes
  • When all kids benefit most from sensitive parenting, it is particularly important for children who are more temperamentally sensitive to their environment (orchids)
167
Q

example of mirroring

A

a baby looks upset. The parent also furrows their eyebrows and frowns.

168
Q

emotional development timeline

A
  • at birth: infants experience & positive emotional states, they show biological/reflexive smiles
  • 2 months: social smiles emerge
  • 3 months: can distinguish between faces of happiness, surprise, and anger
  • 4 months: begin to express anger
  • 5 months: begin to laugh (mainly at bodily noises), show rudimentary emotional regulation skills (self-soothing & self-distraction)
  • 7 months: begin to express fear, can distinguish between expressions of fear and sadness
  • 8 months: fear of strangers & separation anxiety emerge
  • 15 months: separation anxiety declines
  • 18 months: a sense of self as separate from others emerges
  • 2 years: peak in the tendency to react with anger, guilt & shame emerge, guilt & shame can be distinguished
  • 3 years: rudimentary ability to identify and label emotions in the self and others (good vs. bad), fear imaginary creatures
  • 4 years: laugh at jokes
  • 5 years: understand that people can have mixed emotions, begin to understand that a person’s facial expressions don’t necessarily match their feeligns
  • 6-8 years: rely on cognitive strategies & problem-solving to regulate emotions, fear relates to everyday situations

PSYC 304 (11 decks)

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