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PSYC 304 > Lecture 2: Motor Development > Flashcards

Lecture 2: Motor Development Flashcards

1
Q

reflexes

A

Innate, involuntary actions that occur in response to a particular stimulation

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2
Q

function of reflexes

A

adaptive, though the function of some is unclear

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3
Q

examples of reflexes

A

grasping, rooting, sucking, stepping

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4
Q

what reflex has an unclear function

A

tonic neck reflex

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4
Q

tonic neck reflex

A

when an infant’s head is turned to the side, the arm on that side extends and the arm and knee on the other side flex

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5
Q

when do reflexes disappear

A

Most reflexes disappear by 2 months. Some don’t like coughing, sneezing, blinking, withdrawing from pain

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6
Q

absent/persistent reflexes

A

Absent reflexes or reflexes that persist for too long can mean that the infant has neurological problems

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7
Q

major milestones

A

Major motor development tasks of a period

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8
Q

when do major milestones happen?

A

in sequence, rarely out of order

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9
Q

major milestones among infants

A

There is huge individual variation in the ages these milestones are achieved

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10
Q

when do babies begin crawling?

A

7-8 months

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11
Q

why isn’t crawling considered a major milestone?

A

Many healthy babies never crawl and skip right to walking

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12
Q

why do many healthy babies skip crawling?

A
  • Upper body or core weakness
  • Hypersensitive to the texture of the floor
  • Tonic neck reflex persists
  • Insufficient opportunity
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13
Q

what are average ages of milestones based on?

A

WEIRD samples

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14
Q

WEIRD samples

A

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic

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15
Q

what % of the world’s population is WEIRD?

A

15%

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16
Q

culture and major milestones

A

Cultural practices lead to individual differences in when motor milestones are achieved

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17
Q

three examples of cultural practices leading to differences in major milestones

A
  1. culture and sitting
  2. cuture and encouragement of motor skills
  3. cultures, diapers, and walking
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18
Q

culture and sitting

A

There are huge cross-cultural differences in how long 5-month-olds can sit independently

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19
Q

why is there so much variety in sitting across cultures?

A
  • Related to where infants are placed to sit
  • Earlier independent sitting in countries where infants spend more time in places with less postural support (ex. The ground)
  • Later independent sitting in countries where infants spent more time in places with lots of postural support (ex. Child furniture or being held)
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20
Q

what factors affect when infants develop their motor milestones?

A
  • how many opportunities infants have to practice
  • how much motor development is actively encouraged
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21
Q

high encouragement for motor development

A

In some countries, infants are given motor exercises, so they develop motor skills more quickly
Ex. Sub-Saharan Africa

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22
Q

low encouragement for motor development

A

In some countries, infants are actively discouraged from crawling because of safety or hygiene concerns, so they crawl later or not at all
Ex. Urban China

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23
Q

culture, diapers, and walking

A

Infants show more mature walking when naked vs. when wearing a diaper. They also show more mature walking in a disposable diaper vs. a cloth diaper

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24
Q

implications of cultural differences

A
  • Cultural practices in one domain can have unintended consequences in another domain
  • Context plays an important role in motor development
25
Q

early theories behind motor developent

A

motor development is governed by cortical maturation

26
Q

current theories behind motor development

A

Motor development is governed by a complex interplay between numerous factors:
- Neural development
- Increases in physical strength
- Physical abilities, like posture control and balance
- Perceptual skills
- Change in body proportion and weight
- Motivation

27
Q

stepping reflex

A

Infants are born with a stepping reflex that disappears at 2 months but then starts stepping again between 7-12 months of age when learning to walk

28
Q

hypothesis for why the stepping reflex disappears

A

infants gain weight faster than they build leg muscles and thus have insufficient strength to lift heavier legs

29
Q

evidence for the role of weight changes in eliminating the stepping reflex

A
  • Young infants who still showed stepping reflex stopped stepping when weights were attached to their ankles
  • Infants who no longer show stepping reflex resumed stepping when placed in a tank of water
30
Q

motivation in infants

A
  • Infants are highly, intrinsically motivated to explore and learn
  • Persistence despite failing
  • Continue to practice new skills even though they possess skills that are more efficient and could accomplish the same goal
  • Look delighted when practicing new skills
31
Q

individual differences in motivation and milestones

A

Individual differences in motivation predict when motor milestones are achieved

32
Q

individual differences in motivation study design

A

compared low and high-motivation infants on when they achieved motor milestones

33
Q

low-motivation infants

A

Movement occurs infrequently, prefer activities that require little energy, require lots of stimulation to change position

34
Q

high-motivation infants

A

move often, prefer high-energy activity, change position often, do not need clear stimulation to move

35
Q

individual differences in motivation study findings

A

Found that highly motivated infants achieved all motor milestones earlier than less motivated infants

36
Q

why does motor development matter?

A
  • Enables active learning and expands an infant’s world
  • Allows children to learn by trial and error rather than just passively observing
  • Increases opportunities for learning
  • Facilitates the development of skills in other domains, especially vision and social behaviour
37
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects

A

Reaching enables object exploration, which has consequences for visual development

38
Q

motor development at 7 months

A
  • Babies can sit independently and reach
  • This allows kids to become more familiar with the properties of different objects, including 3D
39
Q

motor development perceiving 3D objects study aim

A

Does independent sitting and reaching facilitate an understanding of 3D objects?

40
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects method

A

habituation paradigm with 4-7.5 month-olds

41
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects habituation paradigm

A

presented with a rotating object with only 2 sides visible

42
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects study test

A

presented infants with a rotating complete shape beside a rotating hollow shape

43
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects study hypothesis

A

If the infant saw the shape as a complete 3D object, they should look longer at the incomplete display because it’s novel

44
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects study results

A

Infants that were more advanced in sitting and reaching were more likely to look at the incomplete display. Age was not related to where the infant looked

45
Q

motor development and perceiving 3D objects study takeaway

A

motor development in sitting and reaching influences the development of 3D object perception

46
Q

motor development and depth perception

A

Motor development impacts depth perception

47
Q

motor development and depth perception study aim

A

Can babies tell the difference between slopes?

48
Q

motor development and depth perception study method

A

Infants were placed in front of walkways with either shallow or steep slopes and encouraged to crawl across

49
Q

motor development and depth perception study results

A
  • Perception of sloped depended on crawling experience
  • Beginner crawlers (about 8 months) confidently went down the shallow slope but also attempted slopes that were too steep
  • Experienced crawlers avoided steep slopes
50
Q

motor development and depth perception follow-up study results

A
  • When these same babies started walking, they made the same mistake as with crawling
  • They initially went down slopes that were too steep
    They failed to transfer what they had learned about slopes through crawling to walking
51
Q

motor development and depth perception studies takeaway

A

infants have to learn through experience how to integrate perceptual information with each new motor skill developed

52
Q

scale errors

A

attempt to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the huge difference in size between the child and the object

53
Q

when are scale errors present?

A

until about 2 years

54
Q

what causes scale errors?

A

the failure to integrate visual information when action planning

55
Q

understanding intentions in adults

A

Adults proactively shift their gaze to the goal of an action when observing somebody performing that action. This indicates that they understand the person’s intention

56
Q

motor development and understanding intentions study aim

A

determine if infants can proactively shift their gaze

57
Q

motor development and understanding intentions study method

A

used eye-tracking in adults, 12-month-olds, and 6-month-olds. Researchers showed participants a video of a person placing objects into a bucket

58
Q

motor development and understanding intentions study results

A
  • Adults and 12-month-olds showed a proactive gaze toward the bucket, but 6-month-olds did not
  • 6 month-olds have not yet developed the ability to pick up, carry, and drop objects
59
Q

motor development and understanding intentions study takeaway

A

infants’ ability to predict others’ actions relies on them being able to perform these same actions

60
Q

what might contribute to cross-cultural differences in walking?

A

diapers

PSYC 304 (11 decks)

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