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PSYC 304 > Lecture 3: Auditory Development and Music Cognition > Flashcards

Lecture 3: Auditory Development and Music Cognition Flashcards

1
Q

music cognition

A

The study of the abilities and processes required to engage with musical stimuli

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2
Q

what fields does music cognition encompass?

A

psychology, computer science, neuroscience, and music

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3
Q

3 reasons to use music to study auditory development

A
  1. it’s similar to language
  2. convenience
  3. evolution
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4
Q

music and language similarities

A
  • Both music and language involve applying a set of rules and principles to organize and make sense of the auditory world
  • Both music and language engage multiple regions and processes in the brain
  • Musical and language abilities are correlated; we can learn about language by studying music and vice-versa
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5
Q

convenience of using music to study auditory development

A
  • Learning about music is arguably more fascinating than learning about language
  • Some people are experts in music, not language
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6
Q

evolution of music

A
  • Music is innate: responses to music are present in utero
  • Music is universal: music production exists in every society studied to date
  • Music is adaptive: it fulfills multiple functions in society
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7
Q

main components of hearing

A
  • outer ear
  • middle ear
  • inner ear
  • central nervous system
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8
Q

outer ear

A

when something in the world moves or vibrates, it creates a wave that travels into the auditory canal

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9
Q

middle ear

A

Soundwaves cause the eardrum to vibrate triggering vibrations in three small bones

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10
Q

inner ear

A

soundwaves travel into the cochlea, where they are transduced into electrical signals

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11
Q

central nervous system and hearing

A

electrical signals travel along the auditory nerve, through the brainstem and into the primary auditory in the right and left temporal lobes

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12
Q

pitch

A

Describes our perception of the frequency of the wave

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13
Q

waves vs. frequency

A

The more waves, the higher the frequency

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14
Q

frequency vs. pitch

A

The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch

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15
Q

how is pitch measured?

A

in Hertz (Hz) or as notes on a scale

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16
Q

melody

A

A sequence of pitches that has some logical sense

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17
Q

what is melody comprised of?

A

Made up of intervals, so at least two pitches are required

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18
Q

contour

A

pattern of intervals going up and down

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19
Q

prosody

A

using melody in speech to convey meaning and emotion

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20
Q

what does melody have?

A

contour

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21
Q

beat

A

our perception of evenly spaced points in a sequence, sometimes felt as the “pulse”

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22
Q

tempo

A

Beats per minute (BPM)

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23
Q

rhythm

A

a full pattern of temporal intervals in a sequence

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24
Q

timbre

A

The tonal quality of a sound

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25
Q

function of timbre

A

Allows us to distinguish between types of sounds

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26
Q

importance of timbre

A

Important in the development of our language perception

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27
Q

how can we describe timbre?

A
  • Adjectives
  • Instrument names
  • Non-verbally (not always)
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28
Q

importance of the building blocks of sound

A
  • The building blocks of sound are the building blocks of language
  • They help infants learn how the sounds of their native language map onto meaning
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29
Q

environment of the fetus

A

The fetus develops in an aquatic environment, where high-frequency and loud sounds are attenuated by fluid and tissue

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30
Q

what sounds is the fetus primarily exposed to?

A

low-frequency sounds

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31
Q

why is the fetus primarily exposed to low-frequency sounds?

A
  • The cells of the cochlea and auditory cortex develop in a tonotropic fashion
  • The earliest cells to develop are responsible for low frequencies and the latest cells to develop respond preferentially to high frequencies
  • The transition from low- to high-frequency auditory processing happens gradually throughout infancy
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32
Q

Tonotropic

A

respond to specific frequencies grouped together, from high to low (like a keyboard)

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33
Q

When the mother is silent, what are the most prominent sounds that can be heard?

A
  1. Bowel sounds (irregular, popping)
  2. Maternal heartbeat (regular, slow)
  3. Fetal heartbeat (regular, fast)
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34
Q

development of the auditory system sequence

A
  • In the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, the fetus is unresponsive to sound
  • At 20 weeks, the neural pathway to the auditory cortex becomes functional
  • Between 20-25 weeks, the first responses to sound can be recorded via ultrasound
  • By 35 weeks, cochlear development is mature
  • At 40 weeks (term), basic auditory abilities are functional
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35
Q

why is the fetus unresponsive to sound in the first 20 weeks?

A

Sound waves cannot yet be transduced into electrical signals and therefore do not reach the auditory cortex for processing because the development of cochlea is incomplete

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36
Q

when does the neural pathway to the auditory cortex stop developping

A

2 years after birth

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37
Q

building blocks of sound

A
  • pitch
  • melody
  • beat
  • rhythm
  • timbre
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38
Q

3 basic auditory abilities

A
  • localization
  • identification
  • discrimination
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39
Q

basic auditory abilities at birth

A

are already developed

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40
Q

localization

A

the ability to perceive the spatial location of a sound source

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41
Q

adults vs. babies re. localization

A

Babies are worse than adults because of their smaller head size

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42
Q

identification

A

the ability to perceive discrete speech sounds (phonemes)

43
Q

importance of sound identification

A

Important for the development of language

44
Q

discrimination

A

the ability to hear differences between sounds

45
Q

importance of discrimination

A

Important for the development of language and music

46
Q

pitch discrimination at birth

A

Newborns can discriminate a wide range of pitches (from 20-20,000 Hz) but this range gets narrower as children get older

47
Q

2 reasons for infant auditory perceptual narrowing

A

attachment & language

48
Q

attachment and perceptual narrowing

A

Being able to bond with caregivers is more likely to ensure survival, thus the auditory system needs to be optimally sensitive to pitches emitted by caregivers

49
Q

language and perceptual narrowing

A

infants need to be able to adopt their native language(s); thus, a wider range of sensitivity ensures optimal language acquisition

50
Q

pitch and infant attachment

A
  • Caregivers sing to their infants in a higher-pitched and slower tone
  • Infants prefer infant-directed singing over adult-directed singing
51
Q

sound perception in preterm infants

A

high-frequency sounds are amplified

52
Q

sound in the neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU)

A

Overexposure to high-frequency sounds (e.g., ventilators, fans, pagers, monitors, alarms) and underexposure to low-frequency sounds (e.g., the uterine environment)

53
Q

transition from low to high-frequency auditory processing in infants

A

happens gradually throughout infancy and is an essential part of proper sensory development

54
Q

transition from low to high-frequency auditory processing in pre-term infants

A
  • Preterm infants do not experience this gradual transition
  • Preterm infants are more sensitive to high-frequency sounds, which can be toxic to development of the auditory cortex
  • This may have adverse effects on language & musical abilities
55
Q

how do reserachers suggest we avoid adverse effects on language & musical abilities for pre-term infants?

A

it could be beneficial to expose them to primarily low-frequency sounds after birth

56
Q

pre-term infants experiment aim

A

aimed to deteremine if it is beneficial to exposure pre-term infants to low-frequency noises

57
Q

pre-term infants control condition

A

Babies in the control group received treatment as usual (hospital sounds)

58
Q

pre-term infants experimental condition

A

Babies in the experimental group received 3 h per day of exposure to a uterine environment soundscape (the mother’s voice + heartbeat) for the duration of their NICU stay

59
Q

pre-term infants study sample & method

A

researchers took a group of 40 mothers who’d had babies at 30 weeks. they divided them into a control and experimental condition

60
Q

pre-term infants study findings

A

babies in the experimental group showed faster development in the auditory cortex, as measured by cranial ultrasound

61
Q

pre-term infants study takeaway

A

This was taken as evidence that auditory plasticity can be evoked in preterm infants through exposure to realistic uterine soundscapes

62
Q

discrimination tasks

A

measure the ability to detect differences

63
Q

what properties of melody do discrimination tasks test?

A

Discrimination can be tested for any property of melody (ex. Interval, contour, timbre)

64
Q

when does melody discrimination ability peak?

A

by age 10-11

65
Q

singing tasks

A

measure the ability to match or repeat pitches or sequences

66
Q

when does singing ability peak?

A

by age 12

67
Q

what factors influence singing in adolescents?

A

Musical training
Puberty
Shyness
Music listening

68
Q

absolute/perfect pitch

A

people who can sing, name, or identify a pitch without reference to another pitch

69
Q

prevalence of perfect pitch

A

Only about 1 in 10,000 people are born with it

70
Q

what does perfect pitch provide evidence for?

A

a critical period in auditory development

71
Q

why does perfect pitch provide evidence for a critical period in auditory development?

A
  • It cannot be developed without ear and memory training and this training must begin in childhood
  • If a child hasn’t acquired absolute pitch by about 11 years old, it cannot acquire fully
72
Q

beat perception tasks

A

measure the ability to find the beat

73
Q

what types of tasks are used for beat perception

A

discrimination

74
Q

when do children develop the ability to detect beat misalignment?

A

by age 5

75
Q

synchronization tasks

A

measure the ability to move in time with an external stimulus

76
Q

motor development in synchronization tasks

A

Motor development occurs from head to feet and from the midline of the body out; movements of the head -> clapping -> marching

77
Q

what regions of the brain are involves in synchronization tasks?

A

Synchronization is multimodal: it engages multiple regions of the brain

78
Q

when do children learn to synchronize movements to a steady beat

A

by age 4

79
Q

can children synchronize well to rhythmic sequences?

A

no

80
Q

childrens’ vs. adults’ rhythmic abilities

A

children’s rhythmic abilities develop more slowly and are more variable than adults

81
Q

why do children’s rhythmic abilities develop more slowly?

A

some brain regions involved in synchronization do not mature fully until late adolescence

82
Q

culture and rhytmic ability

A

Cultural familiarity also plays a role in rhythmic ability

83
Q

perceived emotion is ___

A

inferred

84
Q

what is perceived emotion linked to?

A

Linked to features of the musical stimulus (ex. Pitch, tempo, rhythm, timbre, lyrics)

85
Q

felt emotion is ____

A

evoked

86
Q

what is felt emotion linked to?

A

the activation of the nervous system

87
Q

are perceived and felt emotion different?

A

they can be (ex. we often expereince pleasure listening to sad music)

88
Q

can children perceive musical emotions and how do we know?

A

yes, it was demonstrated by recognition tasks (can be nonverbal or verbal)

89
Q

when do children learn to recognize happy vs. sad music

A

by age 3-5

90
Q

what type of music do children recognize emotions in best?

A

Recognition is better for happy-sounding music, perhaps reflecting the frequency of child-directed speech in this age group

91
Q

when does the ability to recognize happy and sad music reach adult levels?

A

by age 11

92
Q

what do adolescents struggle to recognize in music?

A

they can have difficulties recognizing fear and anger

93
Q

recognition of emotion in music vs. speech for children

A

children recognize emotion in music just as well as speech

94
Q

can children feel music emotions and how do we know?

A

Yes, by age 1, about 90% of infants move or dance to the music (not synchronized)

95
Q

why do we think children feel a pleasurable urge to move to music

A

Children’s musical movements are frequently accompanied by smiling and laughing

96
Q

what musical characteristics are associated with groove

A

rhythm & syncopation

97
Q

syncopation

A

a pattern of emphasis off the main beat

98
Q

when is groove felt most strongly?

A

with a medium level of syncopation

99
Q

high-groove in adults

A
  • High-groove music is associated with more movement & better timing accuracy
  • High-groove music is also associated with higher pleasure and reward
100
Q

groove and children study aim

A

determine how does groove affect children’s dancing

101
Q

groove and children study method

A

parents were asked to film their child (78 children aged 3-6) having a dance party

102
Q

groove and children study conditions

A

High-groove music, slow tempo
High-groove music, fast tempo
Low-groove music, slow tempo
Low-groove music, fast tempo

103
Q

groove and children study findings

A
  • Found that high-groove music is associated with more movement & energetic movement
  • High-groove music is associated with better timing accuracy
  • Children expressed joy in 75% of trials, irrespective of groove
104
Q

groove and chidlren study conclusion

A

groove seems to play a similar role in producing and maintaining the pleasurable urge to move in children and adults

PSYC 304 (11 decks)

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