Lecture 3: Auditory Development and Music Cognition Flashcards
music cognition
The study of the abilities and processes required to engage with musical stimuli
what fields does music cognition encompass?
psychology, computer science, neuroscience, and music
3 reasons to use music to study auditory development
- it’s similar to language
- convenience
- evolution
music and language similarities
- Both music and language involve applying a set of rules and principles to organize and make sense of the auditory world
- Both music and language engage multiple regions and processes in the brain
- Musical and language abilities are correlated; we can learn about language by studying music and vice-versa
convenience of using music to study auditory development
- Learning about music is arguably more fascinating than learning about language
- Some people are experts in music, not language
evolution of music
- Music is innate: responses to music are present in utero
- Music is universal: music production exists in every society studied to date
- Music is adaptive: it fulfills multiple functions in society
main components of hearing
- outer ear
- middle ear
- inner ear
- central nervous system
outer ear
when something in the world moves or vibrates, it creates a wave that travels into the auditory canal
middle ear
Soundwaves cause the eardrum to vibrate triggering vibrations in three small bones
inner ear
soundwaves travel into the cochlea, where they are transduced into electrical signals
central nervous system and hearing
electrical signals travel along the auditory nerve, through the brainstem and into the primary auditory in the right and left temporal lobes
pitch
Describes our perception of the frequency of the wave
waves vs. frequency
The more waves, the higher the frequency
frequency vs. pitch
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch
how is pitch measured?
in Hertz (Hz) or as notes on a scale
melody
A sequence of pitches that has some logical sense
what is melody comprised of?
Made up of intervals, so at least two pitches are required
contour
pattern of intervals going up and down
prosody
using melody in speech to convey meaning and emotion
what does melody have?
contour
beat
our perception of evenly spaced points in a sequence, sometimes felt as the “pulse”
tempo
Beats per minute (BPM)
rhythm
a full pattern of temporal intervals in a sequence
timbre
The tonal quality of a sound
function of timbre
Allows us to distinguish between types of sounds
importance of timbre
Important in the development of our language perception
how can we describe timbre?
- Adjectives
- Instrument names
- Non-verbally (not always)
importance of the building blocks of sound
- The building blocks of sound are the building blocks of language
- They help infants learn how the sounds of their native language map onto meaning
environment of the fetus
The fetus develops in an aquatic environment, where high-frequency and loud sounds are attenuated by fluid and tissue
what sounds is the fetus primarily exposed to?
low-frequency sounds
why is the fetus primarily exposed to low-frequency sounds?
- The cells of the cochlea and auditory cortex develop in a tonotropic fashion
- The earliest cells to develop are responsible for low frequencies and the latest cells to develop respond preferentially to high frequencies
- The transition from low- to high-frequency auditory processing happens gradually throughout infancy
Tonotropic
respond to specific frequencies grouped together, from high to low (like a keyboard)
When the mother is silent, what are the most prominent sounds that can be heard?
- Bowel sounds (irregular, popping)
- Maternal heartbeat (regular, slow)
- Fetal heartbeat (regular, fast)
development of the auditory system sequence
- In the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, the fetus is unresponsive to sound
- At 20 weeks, the neural pathway to the auditory cortex becomes functional
- Between 20-25 weeks, the first responses to sound can be recorded via ultrasound
- By 35 weeks, cochlear development is mature
- At 40 weeks (term), basic auditory abilities are functional
why is the fetus unresponsive to sound in the first 20 weeks?
Sound waves cannot yet be transduced into electrical signals and therefore do not reach the auditory cortex for processing because the development of cochlea is incomplete
when does the neural pathway to the auditory cortex stop developping
2 years after birth
building blocks of sound
- pitch
- melody
- beat
- rhythm
- timbre
3 basic auditory abilities
- localization
- identification
- discrimination
basic auditory abilities at birth
are already developed
localization
the ability to perceive the spatial location of a sound source
adults vs. babies re. localization
Babies are worse than adults because of their smaller head size
identification
the ability to perceive discrete speech sounds (phonemes)
importance of sound identification
Important for the development of language
discrimination
the ability to hear differences between sounds
importance of discrimination
Important for the development of language and music
pitch discrimination at birth
Newborns can discriminate a wide range of pitches (from 20-20,000 Hz) but this range gets narrower as children get older
2 reasons for infant auditory perceptual narrowing
attachment & language
attachment and perceptual narrowing
Being able to bond with caregivers is more likely to ensure survival, thus the auditory system needs to be optimally sensitive to pitches emitted by caregivers
language and perceptual narrowing
infants need to be able to adopt their native language(s); thus, a wider range of sensitivity ensures optimal language acquisition
pitch and infant attachment
- Caregivers sing to their infants in a higher-pitched and slower tone
- Infants prefer infant-directed singing over adult-directed singing
sound perception in preterm infants
high-frequency sounds are amplified
sound in the neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU)
Overexposure to high-frequency sounds (e.g., ventilators, fans, pagers, monitors, alarms) and underexposure to low-frequency sounds (e.g., the uterine environment)
transition from low to high-frequency auditory processing in infants
happens gradually throughout infancy and is an essential part of proper sensory development
transition from low to high-frequency auditory processing in pre-term infants
- Preterm infants do not experience this gradual transition
- Preterm infants are more sensitive to high-frequency sounds, which can be toxic to development of the auditory cortex
- This may have adverse effects on language & musical abilities
how do reserachers suggest we avoid adverse effects on language & musical abilities for pre-term infants?
it could be beneficial to expose them to primarily low-frequency sounds after birth
pre-term infants experiment aim
aimed to deteremine if it is beneficial to exposure pre-term infants to low-frequency noises
pre-term infants control condition
Babies in the control group received treatment as usual (hospital sounds)
pre-term infants experimental condition
Babies in the experimental group received 3 h per day of exposure to a uterine environment soundscape (the mother’s voice + heartbeat) for the duration of their NICU stay
pre-term infants study sample & method
researchers took a group of 40 mothers who’d had babies at 30 weeks. they divided them into a control and experimental condition
pre-term infants study findings
babies in the experimental group showed faster development in the auditory cortex, as measured by cranial ultrasound
pre-term infants study takeaway
This was taken as evidence that auditory plasticity can be evoked in preterm infants through exposure to realistic uterine soundscapes
discrimination tasks
measure the ability to detect differences
what properties of melody do discrimination tasks test?
Discrimination can be tested for any property of melody (ex. Interval, contour, timbre)
when does melody discrimination ability peak?
by age 10-11
singing tasks
measure the ability to match or repeat pitches or sequences
when does singing ability peak?
by age 12
what factors influence singing in adolescents?
Musical training
Puberty
Shyness
Music listening
absolute/perfect pitch
people who can sing, name, or identify a pitch without reference to another pitch
prevalence of perfect pitch
Only about 1 in 10,000 people are born with it
what does perfect pitch provide evidence for?
a critical period in auditory development
why does perfect pitch provide evidence for a critical period in auditory development?
- It cannot be developed without ear and memory training and this training must begin in childhood
- If a child hasn’t acquired absolute pitch by about 11 years old, it cannot acquire fully
beat perception tasks
measure the ability to find the beat
what types of tasks are used for beat perception
discrimination
when do children develop the ability to detect beat misalignment?
by age 5
synchronization tasks
measure the ability to move in time with an external stimulus
motor development in synchronization tasks
Motor development occurs from head to feet and from the midline of the body out; movements of the head -> clapping -> marching
what regions of the brain are involves in synchronization tasks?
Synchronization is multimodal: it engages multiple regions of the brain
when do children learn to synchronize movements to a steady beat
by age 4
can children synchronize well to rhythmic sequences?
no
childrens’ vs. adults’ rhythmic abilities
children’s rhythmic abilities develop more slowly and are more variable than adults
why do children’s rhythmic abilities develop more slowly?
some brain regions involved in synchronization do not mature fully until late adolescence
culture and rhytmic ability
Cultural familiarity also plays a role in rhythmic ability
perceived emotion is ___
inferred
what is perceived emotion linked to?
Linked to features of the musical stimulus (ex. Pitch, tempo, rhythm, timbre, lyrics)
felt emotion is ____
evoked
what is felt emotion linked to?
the activation of the nervous system
are perceived and felt emotion different?
they can be (ex. we often expereince pleasure listening to sad music)
can children perceive musical emotions and how do we know?
yes, it was demonstrated by recognition tasks (can be nonverbal or verbal)
when do children learn to recognize happy vs. sad music
by age 3-5
what type of music do children recognize emotions in best?
Recognition is better for happy-sounding music, perhaps reflecting the frequency of child-directed speech in this age group
when does the ability to recognize happy and sad music reach adult levels?
by age 11
what do adolescents struggle to recognize in music?
they can have difficulties recognizing fear and anger
recognition of emotion in music vs. speech for children
children recognize emotion in music just as well as speech
can children feel music emotions and how do we know?
Yes, by age 1, about 90% of infants move or dance to the music (not synchronized)
why do we think children feel a pleasurable urge to move to music
Children’s musical movements are frequently accompanied by smiling and laughing
what musical characteristics are associated with groove
rhythm & syncopation
syncopation
a pattern of emphasis off the main beat
when is groove felt most strongly?
with a medium level of syncopation
high-groove in adults
- High-groove music is associated with more movement & better timing accuracy
- High-groove music is also associated with higher pleasure and reward
groove and children study aim
determine how does groove affect children’s dancing
groove and children study method
parents were asked to film their child (78 children aged 3-6) having a dance party
groove and children study conditions
High-groove music, slow tempo
High-groove music, fast tempo
Low-groove music, slow tempo
Low-groove music, fast tempo
groove and children study findings
- Found that high-groove music is associated with more movement & energetic movement
- High-groove music is associated with better timing accuracy
- Children expressed joy in 75% of trials, irrespective of groove
groove and chidlren study conclusion
groove seems to play a similar role in producing and maintaining the pleasurable urge to move in children and adults
