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PSYC 304 > Lecture 10: Development of Self and Peer Relationships > Flashcards

Lecture 10: Development of Self and Peer Relationships Flashcards

1
Q

implicit self

A

the sense that one has a body that can experience and act on the world and that this body is separate from the world

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2
Q

when does the implicit self emerge?

A

it’s present from birth

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3
Q

how do we know when the implicit sense of self emerges?

A

the rooting reflex

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4
Q

self-concept

A

an organized set of beliefs about oneself

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5
Q

what question does the self-concept answer?

A

“Who am I?”

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6
Q

what does the self-concept include?

A

personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, and roles

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7
Q

when does the self-concept emerge?

A

around 18 months

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8
Q

how do we know when the self-concept emerges?

A

the rouge test

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9
Q

when do children start using the “me” pronoun and start calling themselves by their name

A

around 18 months

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10
Q

how does a child’s self-concept develop?

A

primarily by internalizing others’ perceptions of them

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11
Q

direct development of the self-concept

A

The caregiver describes a child in a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept

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12
Q

example of direct development of the self-concept

A

being told they’re good at math

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13
Q

indirect development of the self-concept

A

how children are treated

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14
Q

example of indirect development of the self-concept

A

caregiving experiences shape internal working models

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15
Q

what is the first characteristic present in children’s self-concept?

A

gender

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16
Q

when do children form a basic sense of gender identity?

A

2.5-3 years old

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17
Q

how does gender identity begin

A

by identifying as a boy or girl and labelling others as boys or girls

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18
Q

gender socialization

A

The process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender and caregivers and wider society

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19
Q

when does gender socialization begin?

A

from birth

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20
Q

gender socialization at birth

A

Parents of day-old infants describe newborn girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boys

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21
Q

baby x studies

A

studies in which researchers label the same infant as a boy or a girl and then observe how adults interact with the infant

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22
Q

baby x studies findings

A
  • Infants labelled as boys are rated as bigger, stronger, louder, and more likely to be encouraged to be active
  • Infants labelled as girls received more talk and nurturance
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23
Q

gender socialization and crawling study question

A

how does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills?

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24
Q

gender socialization and crawling study method

A

parents of 11-month-olds estimated the steepest slope their infants could safely crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway. Infants were then tested on their actual crawling skills down slopes of different angles

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25
Q

gender socialization and crawling study results

A
  • Parents of girls tended to underestimate their infant’s crawling ability
  • Parents of boys more accurately estimated their ability
  • When tested on their actual skills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could safely crawl down
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26
Q

gender socialization and crawling study takeaway

A

this suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in the parent’s perception

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27
Q

gender socialization and play

A
  • Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls
  • They are more likely to offer girls more help
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28
Q

gender socialization and language differences

A
  • Parents are more likely to use emotional words with girls than boys in early childhood
  • Emotional understanding thus develops earlier in girls
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29
Q

gender socialization and toy purchases

A

boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5x more pink toys by 12-month-olds

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30
Q

gender socialization and division of household chores

A

home in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles

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31
Q

gender socialization and media exposure

A

more TV viewing by preschoolers is associated with them being more likely to see boys as better than girls

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32
Q

gender self-socialization

A
  • Once a child identify with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related information and conform their behaviour to this information
  • This highlights children’s role in their gender development
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33
Q

gender self-socialization of 3-5-year-olds

A
  • rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviour
  • They show a preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
  • Preference for same-gender playmates
  • Due to the lack of gender constancy
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34
Q

gender self-socialization across cultures

A

This is cross-cultural

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35
Q

gender constancy

A

the understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour

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36
Q

gender self-socialization of 6-year-olds

A
  • rigid, gendered behaviour relaxes because gender constancy is achieved
  • They accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others
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37
Q

gender self-socialization of older children

A
  • they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc.
  • they incorporate these into their self-concepts and adjust their behaviour accordingly
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38
Q

implications of gender identity

A
  • Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self-concepts
  • Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression
  • The extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with their level of peer acceptance
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39
Q

peer acceptance and gender-inconsistent behaviour

A
  • Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways
  • Greater engagement with peers of the same gender is a powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced
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40
Q

impacts of gender-neutral parents on children

A

When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours, children tend to have less traditional gender-role attitudes

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41
Q

gender-neutral parenting

A

conscious parenting practices to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles

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42
Q

where is gender-neutral parenting most common?

A

WEIRD countries

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43
Q

examples of gender-neutral parenting

A

not enforcing gender-specific colours, encouraging all activities

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44
Q

sex

A

assigned at birth and usually based on external genitalia

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45
Q

cisgender children

A

children who identify with their assigned sex

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46
Q

transgender children

A

children who don’t identify with their assigned sex

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47
Q

socially transitioned

A

a transgender person whose outward appearance and pronoun use is consistent with gender identity

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48
Q

gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study aim

A

comparison of gender development of transgender and cisgender children

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49
Q

gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study method

A
  • 317 transgender children aged 3-12 who had socially transitioned
  • 316 age and gender-matched cisgender children
  • 189 cisgender siblings of the transgender children
  • Reported on the strength of gender identity and gender-stereotyped preferences
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50
Q

gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study findings

A

transgender children show strong identification and preferences aligned with their current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children

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51
Q

gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study implications

A
  • Transgender children’s gender development follows similar patterns to cisgender children’s development
  • The lack of differences between siblings and controls suggests that there is nothing unique about the home gender socialization of transgender children
  • Self-socialization plays a strong role in gender identity
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52
Q

implications of self-socialization on gender identity

A
  • Suggests that there is something internal about gender identity; it isn’t just the role of socialization
  • Children, from an early age, may be selectively attending to broader societal messages regarding the gender they feel they are
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53
Q

self-concept in early childhood

A
  • Gender is central to self-concept
  • Concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
  • Unrealistically positive and confident (the result of cognitive limitations)
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54
Q

what ages make up early childhood?

A

3-5 years old

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55
Q

what ages make up middle childhood?

A

7-12 years old

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56
Q

self-concept in middle childhood

A
  • Describe the self using personality traits and inner qualities
  • The self-concept is more balanced and accurate (includes weaknesses but is still positive overall)
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57
Q

what explains the changes in self-concept from early childhood to middle childhood?

A
  • Increased cognitive ability to use higher-order concepts and to think about multiple qualities simultaneously
  • Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others
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58
Q

what ages make up adolescence?

A

13-18 years old

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59
Q

self-concept in adolescence

A
  • Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways
  • They have more intense concerns about social acceptance, which heavily influences their self-concept
  • Egocentrism
  • Imaginary audience
  • Aware of differences in behaviour in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity
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60
Q

egocentrism in adolescence

A
  • Especially in early-mid adolescence
  • They assume their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they are
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61
Q

imaginary audience

A

the belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behaviour

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62
Q

forming an identity

A

Forming an identity is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/early adulthood

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63
Q

how is identity formed?

A

exploration and commitment

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64
Q

exploration

A
  • questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity
  • This includes appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, etc.
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65
Q

committment

A

consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes

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66
Q

typical trajectory of identity formation

A

diffusion -> moratorium/foreclosure -> achievement

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67
Q

identity diffusion

A
  • lack of exploration of options and no commitments made
  • Due to a lack of interest in one’s identity or indecision
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68
Q

what age group is associated with identity diffusion?

A

children

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69
Q

what happens if identity diffusion persists into late adolescence/ adulthood

A

it is associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and having little sense of purpose

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70
Q

moratorium

A
  • the active exploration of various roles but no commitment yet
  • Brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options
  • Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status
  • Necessary for identity achievement
71
Q

foreclosure

A

commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives

72
Q

what causes foreclosure?

A
  • Parents making decisions for teens without their input
  • Teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps
73
Q

who is most likely to experience foreclosure?

A

obedient children with authoritarian parenting

74
Q

potential problems of foreclosure

A
  • Committed to an identity that is not a good fit for their authentic self
  • Commitment is less strong
75
Q

what identity status are most teens in?

A

moratorium or foreclosure

76
Q

identity acheivement

A
  • completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally-driven identity
  • Associated with the most positive mental health and social outcomes
77
Q

when does identity achievement usually occur?

A
  • Usually achieved in early adulthood
  • Biggest gains in identity are in university due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options
78
Q

marcia’s identity status theory

A

argues that there are four identity statuses

79
Q

what are marcia’s four identity statuses?

A
  • identity achievement
  • foreclosure
  • moratorium
  • identity diffusion
80
Q

criticisms of marcia’s identity status theory

A
  • Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples
  • Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence
81
Q

play

A

Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment

82
Q

play across ages

A

Play looks different depending on the child’s age

83
Q

non-social play

A

Play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers

84
Q

3 types of non-social play

A
  • unoccupied play
  • solitary play
  • onlooker play
85
Q

unoccupied play

A

the child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long

86
Q

when does unoccupied play begin?

A

birth-3 months

87
Q

solitary play

A

the child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others

88
Q

when does solitary play begin?

A

3 months- 2 years

89
Q

onlooker play

A
  • the child watches other children play
  • May ask questions but won’t join in
90
Q

when does onlooker play begin?

A

around 2 years old

91
Q

social play

A

Play that involves the participation of peers

92
Q

3 forms of social play

A
  • parallel play
  • associative play
  • cooperative play
93
Q

parallel play

A

children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much

94
Q

when does parallel play begin?

A

2-3 years old

95
Q

associative play

A

children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals

96
Q

when does associative play begin?

A

between 2-4 years old

97
Q

cooperative play

A

children play together and are working toward a common goal

98
Q

when does cooperative play begin?

A

4+ years old

99
Q

progressing to more advanced form of play

A

the progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn’t mean that children no longer engage in less advanced forms of play

100
Q

what is play important for?

A
  • social-emotional development
  • cognitive development
  • motor development
101
Q

social-emotional development and play

A
  • Learn to cooperate
  • Develop theory of mind
102
Q

cognitive development and play

A
  • Practice problem-solving
  • Learning about the world through trial and error
  • Develop language skills
103
Q

motor development and play

A

Unoccupied play fosters motor skills

104
Q

the UN on play

A

The UN recognizes a child’s right “to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child”

105
Q

adults interfering with play study question

A

how does teaching affect exploratory play?

106
Q

adults interfering with play study method

A

4-6-year-olds were shown a toy with many plastic tubes

107
Q

adults interfering with play study conditions

A
  • Accident: an adult accidentally bumped into the tube, making it squeak
  • Teaching: an adult showed the child that the tube squeaks
108
Q

adults interfering with play study findings

A
  • Children played longer and tried more different actions when the experimenter squeaked the toy accidentally
  • Teaching discouraged the children from discovery during play
109
Q

adults interfering with play study takeaways

A
  • Letting children play spontaneously allows them to learn
  • Adults can best support play by following children’s lead so that a child can build knowledge themselves
110
Q

friend

A

A person who’s not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship

111
Q

what are the most important factors in children’s friendships?

A

similarity & proximity

112
Q

similarity in friendships

A
  • Age
  • Acceptance by peers
  • Personality
  • Level of negative emotions
  • Academic motivation
113
Q

proximity in friendships

A
  • Live in the same neighbourhood
  • Go to the same school
  • Participate in the same extracurricular activities
114
Q

gender and choice of friends

A
  • More likely to be friends with kids of the same gender
  • This preference emerges around 3 and peaks around 13
  • At age 13, different gender friends increase, especially for girls
115
Q

friendships at 1-2 years old

A
  • show preference of some children over others
  • Touch them more
  • Smile at them more
116
Q

friendships at 2-3 years old

A
  • developing more complex social behaviours
  • Ex. imitating peers’ behaviours, cooperative problem solving, turn-taking
  • Emergence of parallel play
117
Q

friendships at 3-5 years old

A
  • kids have a concept of friendship
  • Most kids have at least one friend
  • Friendship is defined as playing together
  • Best friend= peer a child plays with the most
  • But friends also have more conflict than non-friends
  • More likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non-friends
  • Emergence of preference for same-gender peers emerges around 3-4 years old
118
Q

friendships at 6-8 years old

A

define friendship based on shared activities with friends

119
Q

friendships at 9-12 years

A

the definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, and help

120
Q

friendships in adolescence

A
  • friendship is primarily defined by self-disclosure and intimacy
  • Friendship takes on central importance
121
Q

gender differences in friendships

A
  • As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship
  • Girls desire more closeness and dependency in friendships
  • This comes with more worrying and stress about friendships
122
Q

gender similarities in friendship

A

Girls and boys show similar levels of conflict and stability in friendships

123
Q

sociometric status

A

the degree to which children are liked vs. disliked by peers

124
Q

how is sociometric status measured?

A

by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class that they like (positive nominations) and peers in their class that they dislike (negative nominations)

125
Q

5 sociometric status groups

A
  • Popular
  • Rejected
  • Average
  • Neglected
  • Controversial
    (PRANC)
126
Q

popular kids

A

Liked by many peers and disliked by few

127
Q

prevalence of popular kids

A

11% of kids

128
Q

popular kids tend to be:

A
  • Socially skilled
  • Good at emotional regulation
  • Assertive, but not aggressive
  • Tend to have factors that give them high status
129
Q

rejected kids

A

Liked by few peers and disliked by many

130
Q

prevalence of rejected kids

A

13% of kids

131
Q

rejected kids tend to:

A

have fewer positive social skills compared to peers

132
Q

2 types of rejected kids

A
  • rejected-aggressive
  • rejected-withdrawn
133
Q

rejected-aggressive kids

A
  • tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behaviour, physical aggression, and delinquency
  • 40-50% of rejected kids
134
Q

rejected-withdrawn kids

A
  • tend to be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious
  • Frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, and depressed
  • 10-25% of rejected kids
135
Q

controversial kids

A
  • Liked by many but also disliked by many
  • Characteristics of rejected-aggressive and popular kids
  • Aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger
  • Compensate for this with many positive social skills like being cooperative, sociable, and funny
136
Q

prevalence of controversial kids

A

7% of kids

137
Q

prevalence of neglected kids

A

9% of kids

138
Q

neglected kids

A
  • Neutral/not noticed
  • Less social and less disruptive than average children
  • But not at risk for negative outcomes
  • Simply prefer solitary activities
  • Can be socially skilled in more structured activities
139
Q

prevalence of average kids

A

60%

140
Q

average kids

A
  • Moderate number of likes and dislikes
  • More social than rejected and neglected kids, but not as social as popular or controversial kids
141
Q

short-term (weeks-months) stability of sociometric status

A
  • Neglected or controversial children are likely to change their status
  • Popular, rejected, and average children tend to remain so
142
Q

long-term (years) stability of sociometric status

A
  • Sociometric status is more likely to change
  • Average and rejected status is the most stable
143
Q

importance of friendship

A
  • Provides social validation and support
  • Fosters the development of positive social skills
144
Q

validation/support in friendship

A
  • This is especially important during transitions
  • Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence
  • Chronic friendlessness is associated with increased loneliness and depression
  • Friendship buffers against negative experiences
145
Q

development of social skills in friendship

A
  • Builds cooperation, theory of mind, and conflict resolution skills
  • Gossip allows children to learn about social norms
  • Childhood friendships are “practice” for adult relationships
146
Q

friends as buffers study question

A

does friendship buffer against negative experiences?

147
Q

friends as buffers study method

A
  • 10-11-year-olds reported on their negative experiences over the course of 4 days
  • After each experience, they indicated their self-worth and whether their best friend was present or not
  • They also measured salivary cortisol as an indicator of stress reaction
148
Q

friends as buffers study findings

A
  • if the child’s best friend wasn’t present, more negative experiences were associated with increased cortisol and lower self-worth
  • But, this wasn’t the case if their best friend was present
149
Q

friendship and attachment study question

A

how does friendship quality shape early adult attachment?

150
Q

friendship and attachment study method

A

a longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18 using data from SECCYD

151
Q

what did the friendship and attachment study assess?

A
  • Quality of caregiving experiences: at age 15 months, 24 months, 36 months, 54 months, and each year from grade 1-6
  • Child’s social competence: assessed by parents and teachers each year from grades 1-6
  • Self-reported best friendship quality in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6
  • Attachment avoidance and anxiety at age 18
152
Q

friendship and attachment study results

A

less supportive parenting, lower social competence, and lower quality friendships across childhood predicted more adult attachment insecurity

153
Q

Avoidance at age 18 was predicted by:

A
  • Lower maternal sensitivity
  • Higher maternal depression
  • Lower social competence in childhood
  • Best friendship quality
154
Q

Anxiety at age 18 was predicted by:

A
  • Higher maternal depression
  • Lower social competence in childhood
  • Best friendship quality
155
Q

friendship vs. parenting and attachment

A

The effect of social skills and friendship experiences on adult attachment is similar to (if not larger than) the effect of caregiving experiences

156
Q

longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study method

A

Friendship was assessed at age 10 and then followed up on at age 22

157
Q

longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study results for 10-year-olds

A

At age 10, kids who had a best friend (vs. those that didn’t) were seen as:
Less aggressive
More popular/well-liked

158
Q

longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study results for 22-year-olds

A

At age 22, those who had a best friend at age 10
Were more successful in university
Had better family and social lives
Had higher self-esteem and less anxiety & depression

159
Q

longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study takeaway

A

this shows that having a close friendship in childhood has both short-term and long-term benefits for social and psychological well-being

160
Q

Being rejected, especially aggressive-rejected in childhood is associated with:

A
  • More aggression
  • Delinquency in teens
  • Substance abuse
  • Continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood
  • Lower self-esteem
  • Less education and limited work success
  • Crime in adulthood
161
Q

deviancy training

A

negative peer pressure wherein peers model and reinforce aggression and deviance by making these behaviours seem acceptable

162
Q

examples of deviancy training

A
  • Kids that have aggressive/delinquent friends are more likely to also become aggressive and delinquent
  • Similar effects with drug and alcohol use
163
Q

when does deviancy training begin?

A

can begin as early as age 5

164
Q

deviancy training as a selection effect

A
  • Children choose peers who are similar to them
  • This implies that kids choose and contribute to “the wrong crowd”
165
Q

how do parents shape their children’s peer relationships in a positive way?

A

monitoring & emotional coaching

166
Q

monitoring

A

parents decide whom children interact with and how much time they spend doing particular activities

167
Q

monitoring at different ages

A

This looks different depending on the child’s age, but it matters for all ages

168
Q

emotional coaching

A

parents teach kids how to effectively manage emotions to interact with peers and handle conflict

169
Q

kids who have more age-appropriate monitoring & emotional coaching

A

are more socially competent and liked by their peers

170
Q

school interventions

A

School interventions aim to improve children’s peer relationships by enhancing their emotional development

171
Q

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)

A

A school intervention that aims to change how rejected children interact with their peers

172
Q

what age group does PATHS study?

A

ages 4-11

173
Q

what do children learn in PATHS?

A
  • To identify emotional expressions
  • Think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expressing emotions
  • Strategies for self-regulation
174
Q

Children who participate in PATHS (vs. control) show:

A
  • Increased emotion understanding and regulation
  • Increased social problem-solving
  • Decreased externalizing behaviour (aggression, acting out)
  • Decreased depression

PSYC 304 (11 decks)

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