Lecture 4: Motor development

Question 1

Dynamic Systems Theory (DST)

Answer 1

Definition: A framework to explain how behavior changes over time through interactions of multiple factors.
* Dynamic: Changes over time.
* Systems: Multiple interacting elements.

Question 2

Contributors to Motor Development (6)

Answer 2

• Increases in strength and weight.
• Neural mechanisms.
• Posture control.
• Balance.
• Perceptual skills.
• Motivation.

Question 3

Milestones of Motor Development

Answer 3

Definition: Milestones are “attractors” in motor development that most children achieve.
* Key Idea: Children achieve milestones through experimentation and learning, not sudden “activation.”
* Researcher: Adolph et al. (2008) emphasized continuous measurement to understand motor development.

Question 4

Types of Motor Skills: Fine Motor Skills

Answer 4

Smaller muscles, such as grasping, object manipulation, and drawing.

Question 5

Types of Motor Skills: Gross Motor Skills

Answer 5

Larger muscles, such as sitting, crawling, walking, and running.
* Researcher: Gonzales et al. (2019) studied the relationship between fine and gross motor skill development.

Question 6

Motor Development Milestones: Birth – 5 Months

Answer 6

• Stepping Reflex
• Mini Push-Ups during tummy time
• Bouncing when held upright

Question 7

Motor Development Milestones :6 – 10 Months

Answer 7

• Sitting Independently
• cruise
• Crawling
• stand w support

Question 8

Motor Development Milestones :9 – 15 Months

Answer 8

• pull to stand
• stand unsupported
• take first steps

Question 9

Motor Development Milestones: 16-18months

Answer 9

• dance
• climb stairs with help
• walk backwards

Question 10

Motor Development Milestones: 2 years

Answer 10

• run
• kick a ball
• jump from low step

Question 11

Stepping Reflex: Spencer et al. (2006)

Answer 11

Definition: A coordinated behavior resembling walking in infants.
* Disappears around two months due to rapid weight gain outpacing strength development.
Experiment:
Older babies placed in water resumed stepping.
Younger babies with ankle weights stopped stepping.

Question 12

Sitting Independently significance and researchers

Answer 12

Significance: Aids in reaching, enhances perception, and creates opportunities for exploration.
* Spencer et al. (2000): Studied the impact of sitting on reaching.
* Ross-Sheehy et al. (2016): Linked sitting to visual perception improvements.

Question 13

Figure/Ground Assignment: Ross-Sheehy et al. (2016)

Answer 13

• Definition: The ability to differentiate objects (figures) from the background (ground).
• Cues: Motion and symmetry guide infants in this process.
• Researcher: Ross-Sheehy et al. (2016) demonstrated the role of sitting in enhancing depth perception and figure/ground assignment.

Question 14

Reaching and Grasping: Rohr et al. (2021).

Answer 14

Definition: Stretching out one or both hands to touch or grasp objects.
Development:
* Early reaches are swipes.
* Stability improves after independent sitting.
* Soft Assembly: Reaching success depends on a stable base, arm control, and goal location.

Question 15

Sticky Mittens Experiment: Libertus & Needham (2010) & Libertus et al. (2016)

Answer 15

Definition: “Sticky mittens” with Velcro help infants engage with objects before natural reaching develops.
Findings:
* Infants showed significant improvements in grasping and reaching after training.
* Effects lasted up to 12 months.
Researcher:
* Libertus & Needham (2010): Introduced the intervention.
* Libertus et al. (2016): Studied long-term effects.

Question 16

What is the A-not-B Task?

Answer 16

A task designed by Piaget to study infants’ object permanence and cognitive development.

Question 17

How is the A-not-B Task performed?

Answer 17

1. Hide a toy at Location A, and the infant finds it multiple times.
2. Move the toy to Location B, but the infant often searches at Location A.

Question 18

What does Piaget’s theory say about the A-not-B error?

Answer 18

Piaget believed the error shows that infants younger than 10 months lack object permanence.

Question 19

What is the Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) explanation for the A-not-B error?

Answer 19

• Motor Memory: Repeated reaching to Location A creates a motor habit.
• Attractors: The habit strengthens preference for Location A.
• Posture: Changing posture disrupts motor memory and reduces the error.

Question 20

How do nested timescales relate to the A-not-B error?

Answer 20

Behavior is influenced by previous actions (reaching to A), current perceptions, and just-prior events (hiding the toy).

Question 21

What factors can reduce the A-not-B error?

Answer 21

• Changing the infant’s posture.
• Reducing motor memory reliance by varying trial conditions.

Question 22

What did Spencer et al. (2006) discover about the A-not-B error?

Answer 22

Errors result from the combination of motor memory, attention, and attractor dynamics, rather than a lack of cognitive ability.

Question 23

Self-Locomotion

Answer 23

Crawling begins around 8 months, and walking independently starts at 13-14 months.
Significance:
* Crawling is associated with fear of heights.
* Knowledge learned in crawling doesn’t transfer to walking.
Researcher: Adolph (1997) tracked infants’ locomotion transitions.

Question 24

what did Han & Adolph (2020) observe toddlers falling behaviour?

Answer 24

observed 138 toddlers aged 13–19 months in a playroom setting.

Question 25

How often did toddlers fall in the study?

Answer 25

Toddlers fell 563 times during the observation period.

Question 26

How quickly did toddlers recover after a fall?

Answer 26

On average, toddlers resumed play within 1.84 seconds after falling.

Question 27

How often did toddlers fuss or caregivers express concern after a fall?

Answer 27

• Caregivers were concerned in only 8% of falls.
• 4% of falls caused toddlers to fuss.

Question 28

Why were the physical impacts of falling minimal?

Answer 28

• Toddlers’ small body size reduces the impact.
• Quick reactive behaviors like bracing with hands minimize injury.

Question 29

What role does falling play in motor development?

Answer 29

• Falling helps toddlers refine balance and motor control.
• Low-impact errors encourage practice, exploration, and skill improvement.

Question 30

Does falling significantly alter toddler behavior?

Answer 30

No, but it fosters gradual improvement in motor skills through exploration and adaptation.

Question 31

Road Crossing

Answer 31

Findings:
* Children aged 6-10 are slower to cross roads and choose smaller traffic gaps compared to adults.
* Peer presence increases risky behavior.
Researcher:
* O’Neal et al. (2018, 2019) studied children and adolescents in road-crossing simulations.

Question 32

Motor Development and Language

Answer 32

Findings:
* Sitting correlates with vocabulary growth at 10-14 months.
* Walking correlates with increased communication and better vocabulary retention.
Researcher:
* Libertus & Violi (2016) linked motor and language development.
* Walle & Campos (2014) demonstrated associations between walking and vocabulary.
* Pruitt & Morini (2021) found physical activity improves vocabulary retention in older children.