Lecture 13: Gender development 1

Question 1

What is modal gender development?

Answer 1

Modal gender development refers to the mode (most common) pattern where a child’s gender aligns with their assigned sex.

Question 2

What does Janet Hyde’s (2005) “Gender Similarities Hypothesis” propose?

Answer 2

Boys and girls are more similar than different, with most differences being small.

Question 3

What are some cognitive gender differences?

Answer 3

• IQ Scores: Practically identical.
• Verbal Skills: Girls initially outperform boys (reading advantage small; writing advantage medium).
• Spatial Skills: Boys outperform girls, particularly in mental rotation (Halpern, 2004).

Question 4

What methodology was used in Hedges & Nowell (1995) and Nowell & Hedges (1998) studies on writing skills?

Answer 4

Meta-analysis of standardized test scores to measure gender differences in verbal and writing skills.

Question 5

What academic differences exist between boys and girls at GCSE level?

Answer 5

Girls outperform boys: 71.3% of girls vs. 62.4% of boys achieved at least one C grade in 2016.

Question 6

What are the findings on gender differences in social behaviors?

Answer 6

• Girls: Better self-regulation, compliance, and empathy.
• Boys: Higher levels of direct aggression.
• Methodology: Observational studies and self-reports (Smith et al., 2004; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998).

Question 7

What are the two types of aggression, and how do they differ by gender?

Answer 7

• Direct Aggression: Physical or verbal acts (higher in boys).
• indirect Aggression: Social exclusion and gossip (more common in girls).
• Methodology: Observational and survey-based studies.

Question 8

What does the evolutionary theory of gender differences propose?

Answer 8

• Behavioral tendencies evolved to maximize reproductive advantages (Buss, 1999).

Girls: Develop nurturing behaviors.
Boys: Exhibit physical activity and aggression.

Question 9

How does Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) affect gendered behaviors?

Answer 9

Excess androgen exposure in XX children leads to more masculine behaviors (Nordenstrom et al., 2002).
* Methodology: Longitudinal parental reports and behavioral observations.

Question 10

What were the findings of the Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) on gendered behavior?

Answer 10

• Heritability of sex-typed behavior: 83% in boys, 78% in girls.
• Nonshared environments significantly influence preferences.
• Methodology: Parental reports and genetic analyses of twins born in England and Wales (1994–1996).

Question 11

What does Social Learning Theory (Mischel, 1966) propose about gender development?

Answer 11

Children learn gender roles through reinforcement and modeling.

• Langlois & Downs (1980): Fathers reinforce same-sex behaviors.
• Methodology: Observational studies of parental reactions.

Question 12

What are the three key influences in Social Cognitive Theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999)?

Answer 12

1. Modeling.
2. Enactive experience.
3. Direct tuition.

Methodology: Experimental and observational studies of gender role acquisition.

Question 13

What is Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg, 1966)?

Answer 13

Gender understanding unfolds through stages of cognitive development:

1. Gender Identity (2.5 years): Labeling self as male or female.
2. Gender Stability (3.5 years): Understanding gender stability over time.
3. Gender Constancy (6 years): Recognizing the permanence of gender.

Methodology: Longitudinal studies tracking children’s understanding over time (Slaby & Frey, 1976).

Question 14

What limitation does Weinraub et al. (1984) identify in Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 14

Children prefer same-sex toys before fully understanding gender.

Question 15

What is Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson, 1981)?

Answer 15

• Gender identity guides gender-stereotyped processing and behaviors.
• Networks of gender-related information develop self- and other-sex schemas.
• Methodology: Experimental studies on categorization and preference formation.

Question 16

What do Perry et al. (1984) identify as a limitation of cognitive theories?

Answer 16

Gender-stereotyped behaviors often emerge before children demonstrate knowledge of stereotypes.

Question 17

What does Gender Schema Theory fail to explain?

Answer 17

Asymmetry in boys’ and girls’ gender-typed preferences despite equal knowledge of stereotypes.

Question 17

How did the Draw-A-Scientist studies illustrate gender bias in STEM?

Answer 17

• 1960s–1970s findings: 99.4% of drawings depicted male scientists.
• Methodology: Meta-analysis of drawings collected from children.

Question 18

What are common criticisms of cognitive theories of gender development?

Answer 18

1. They do not address why males and females are valued differently.
2. They largely ignore the social context.
3. Predicted relationships between stereotypes and behavior are often unsupported.

Question 19

What are the overall similarities and differences between boys and girls?

Answer 19

• Boys and girls are more similar than different.
• Notable differences: Preferences for toys, activities, and aggression types

Question 20

What are the key findings of Smith et al. (2004) regarding compliance?

Answer 20

• Girls exhibit greater compliance than boys, with moderate to large effects.
• Methodology: Observational studies examining children’s responses to rules and instructions.

Question 21

What role does empathy play in gender differences?

Answer 21

• Girls show higher levels of empathy and sympathy than boys (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998).
• Methodology: Experimental tasks and parent-reported measures of empathetic behaviors.

Question 22

What findings support evolutionary approaches to gender differences?

Answer 22

• Boys evolved to be more active and aggressive; girls to nurture relationships (Buss, 1999).
• Criticism: Recent research challenges traditional hunter-gatherer roles, showing women’s contributions to hunting.
• Methodology: Ethnographic and historical analyses of human behavior.

Question 23

What were the results of Langlois & Downs (1980) regarding reinforcement?

Answer 23

Fathers are more positive toward children’s same-sex behaviors and more critical of cross-sex behaviors.

• Methodology: Observational studies in preschool settings.

Question 24

What limitation does Gender Schema Theory face regarding asymmetry in gender preferences?

Answer 24

While boys and girls have equal knowledge of gender stereotypes, boys display stronger gender-typed preferences, which the theory does not fully explain.