Lecture 14: Gender Development 2

Question 1

At what age do gender-based preferences emerge, and how do they change over time?

Answer 1

• Gender-based preferences emerge by 3 years (Huston, 1983).
• By 4–5 years, children avoid other-sex toys.
• Boys’ masculine preferences increase with age (Archer, 1992).
• Girls’ feminine preferences increase until 5–6 years, after which they show more interest in masculine activities.

Question 2

What is gender boundary maintenance?

Answer 2

• The process of maintaining gender group boundaries.
• Boys are more likely to initiate and enforce boundaries than girls (Sroufe, Bennett, & Best, 1993).

Question 3

How do boys and girls view gender-atypical behaviors?

Answer 3

Both boys and girls view boys with feminine preferences more negatively than girls with masculine preferences (Levy et al., 1995).

Question 4

At what age do children develop gender-stereotyped knowledge?

Answer 4

• By 3 years, children recognize gender stereotypes about objects and activities (Huston, 1983).
• Stereotypes about activities and occupations increase between 3–5 years and reach ceiling levels by 7 years.
• Stereotypes about personality traits emerge by 5 years (e.g., boys = aggressive; girls = emotional).

Question 5

What challenges exist in studying parental influences on gender development?

Answer 5

Trautner (1996): Mixed findings due to:
* Conceptual vagueness in defining variables.
* Multi-dimensional nature of gender (shared and individual variations).
* Influence of other socialization agents beyond parents.

Question 6

How do parents treat sons and daughters differently?

Answer 6

• Wills et al. (1976): Parents smiled more at girls and gave them dolls compared to boys.
• Rubin, Provenano, & Luria (1974): Girls described as delicate, boys as strong, despite no physical differences.
• Fagot (1978): Girls encouraged to play with dolls and discouraged from rough play, while boys were encouraged to engage in more active play.

Question 7

What did Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) find about parental influence?

Answer 7

Meta-analysis showed no significant sex differences in parental socialization, focusing primarily on mothers.

Question 8

What did Lytton & Romney (1991) discover about parental influence?

Answer 8

• Differences in parental encouragement were limited to activities (e.g., boys in sports, girls in arts).
• Age of the child was a crucial variable.

Question 9

What is Eccles’ Expectancy-Value Theory (2005)?

Answer 9

1. Parents’ gender-role beliefs influence their judgments about children’s competence in stereotyped domains.
2. These judgments shape parents’ expectations for their children’s future performance.
3. Expectations determine the types of opportunities provided to children.

Question 10

What did Eccles’ longitudinal research find about parental beliefs?

Answer 10

• Daughters were rated as more competent in English and music but less in sports.
• Sons were rated higher in sports competence and interest.

Question 11

How do lone-mother families affect gender development?

Answer 11

• Stevenson & Black (1988): Preschoolers in father-absent families were less stereotyped, but older boys were more stereotyped.
• Stevens et al. (2002): No differences in gender-role behavior between lone-mother families with or without father contact and two-parent families.

Question 12

How do siblings influence gender-role development?

Answer 12

Golombok, Hines, & Johnston (2000):
* Boys with older brothers and girls with older sisters were more gender-typed.
* Boys with older sisters showed more feminine behaviors but not less masculine.
* Girls with older brothers showed more masculine behaviors and less feminine behaviors.

Question 13

What did McHale et al. (2001) find about sibling influence?

Answer 13

Longitudinal study showed that:
* First-born siblings influence second-born siblings’ gender-role attitudes.
* Second-born siblings showed more sibling influence than parental influence.
* First-borns exhibited de-identification, becoming less similar to their siblings over time.

Question 14

What methodology did McHale et al. (2001) use?

Answer 14

Longitudinal assessments of 198 sibling pairs, measuring gender-role attitudes, personality traits, and interests over 3 years.

Question 15

What mixed evidence exists about the importance of fathers in gender development?

Answer 15

• Block (1976): Fathers thought to have unique influences.
• Stevenson & Black (1988): Meta-analysis found little difference in gender-role development between father-present and father-absent families, with variations influenced by SES and age.

Question 16

How do parents’ beliefs influence children’s self-concepts?

Answer 16

• Parents’ gendered beliefs affect children’s self-perceptions and the experiences parents provide (Eccles, 2005).
• Yee & Eccles (1988): Parents of boys attributed math success to natural talent, while parents of girls attributed it to effort.

Question 17

What are the main findings about gender-typed preferences in middle childhood?

Answer 17

Gender-typed preferences remain strong, but girls’ preferences become more flexible, encompassing masculine activities.

Question 18

What is the significance of gender-role flexibility in girls?

Answer 18

Girls typically show a wider range of preferences, including masculine activities, compared to boys who strongly avoid feminine activities.

Question 19

What role do siblings play in reinforcing or challenging gender roles?

Answer 19

Siblings act as both role models and reinforcers of gender-related behaviors, with same-sex siblings amplifying traditional roles.

Question 20

What is the overall conclusion about gender development?

Answer 20

Gender development is influenced by complex interactions between parents, siblings, and societal norms, with significant individual variation.