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LS 2 > Lecture 4 > Flashcards

Lecture 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What does a hormone-secreting cell do?

A

Secretes hormones; can reach anywhere in your body through blood circulation but only the cells that have that hormone receptor (target cell)
Can have receptor for their own signal (can sense their own hormone)

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2
Q

What is a non-target cell?

A

A cell that a hormone can’t bind to

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3
Q

What are hormones?

A

One type of chemical signals that enter the blood and activate target cells far from the site of release

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4
Q

What are hormones secreted by?

A

Endocrine cells

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5
Q

What are hormones that are released by neurons called?

A

Neurohormones (These neurons act as endocrine cells)

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6
Q

Based on chemical properties, what are three categories of hormones?

A

Peptides or proteins, steroid hormones, amine hormones

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7
Q

Based on chemical properties, what are three categories of hormones?

A

Peptides or proteins, steroid hormones, amine hormones

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8
Q

What are peptide or protein hormones?

A

Water-soluble, easily transportable in blood (mixes well with water), receptors are on cell surface (polar–can’t pass lipid membranes easily)

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9
Q

What are steroid hormones?

A

Lipid soluble, need carrier proteins in blood (since it can’t mix with water), receptors are mostly intracellular

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10
Q

What are amine hormones?

A

Mostly synthesized from amino acid tyrosine, water or lipid soluble–receptors can be intracellular or on surface

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11
Q

Where do receptors for water-soluble hormones reside?

A

On the cell surface

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12
Q

Where do receptors for lipid-soluble hormones reside?

A

Intracellular; mostly regulate gene expression in nucleus

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13
Q

How do receptors for water-soluble hormones induce cellular response?

A

Via second messengers

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14
Q

How do receptors for water-soluble hormones induce cellular response?

A

Via second messengers

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15
Q

What is the effect of different receptors of a single hormone?

A

Diverse effects

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16
Q

What is fight-or-flight response mediated by?

A

Epinephrine

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17
Q

What are the effects of epinephrine?

A

Heart beats faster and stronger, blood vessels: more blood to muscle, constriction in skin, kidneys, digestive tract; releases glucose in liver (more energy); releases fatty acids (more energy)

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18
Q

What secretes epinephrine?

A

The adrenal gland

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19
Q

What secretes epinephrine?

A

The adrenal gland

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20
Q

Can endocrine cells exist as individual cells within a tissue? How else might they organize?

A

Yes (e.g., endocrine cells in digestive tract). May organize into secretary organs whose main function is to secrete different hormones (endocrine glands, not organs–e.g., pancreas)

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21
Q

What are secretary organs?

A

Endocrine glands that can secrete multiple hormones

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22
Q

What’s in the anterior pituitary/what’s it do?

A

Controlled by the hypothalamus, contains many hormones, controls other endocrine glands

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23
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus releases hormones to this. Ex. oxytocin

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24
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus releases hormones to this. Ex. oxytocin

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25
Q

What’s the pancreas important for?

A

Energy and homeostasis (e.g., insulin, glucagon)

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26
Q

Example of hormone in thyroid gland

A

Thyroxine

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27
Q

Example of hormones in adrenal gland

A

Cortisol, aldosterone, epinephrine, nonepinephrine

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28
Q

Examples of hormones in gonads

A

Testosterone, estrogen

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29
Q

What does white adipose tissue secrete?

A

Leptin–controls appetite

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30
Q

What was the 1st hormone ever discovered?

A

Secretin from the intestine

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31
Q

What is special about Vitamin D?

A

It acts as a hormone in the skin, not a vitamin

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32
Q

What is the central endocrine control?

A

Hypothalamus, pituitary glands

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33
Q

What is the central endocrine control?

A

Hypothalamus, pituitary glands (nodes of hypothalamus)

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34
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus releases hormones to this. Ex. oxytocin

Has no cells that secrete hormones (cells come from hypothalamus)

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35
Q

What is the central endocrine control?

A

Hypothalamus, pituitary glands (nodes of hypothalamus)

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36
Q

What is a continuation of the hypothalamus?

A

Posterior pituitary

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37
Q

Where does the hypothalamus release neurohormones via?

A

The posterior pituitary

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38
Q

What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vesopressin)?

A

Increases water retention by the kidneys; not releasing too much urine

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39
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

Promotes bonding, stimulates uterine contractions (childbirth), milk flow, etc.

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40
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

Promotes bonding, stimulates uterine contractions (childbirth), milk flow, etc.
Ex. prairie voles (opposite: mountain voles–less receptors for the hormone)

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41
Q

How do things go from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary?

A

Long neuron cells from hypothalamus extend axons to posterior pituitary –> release neural hormones directly from posterior pituitary

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42
Q

What does the hypothalamus have control over?

A

The anterior pituitary

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43
Q

When does the anterior pituitary secrete hormones?

A

When hypothalamus tells them to (when it releases ___-releasing hormone). Hormones released can control other glands: tropic hormones

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44
Q

Where does the anterior pituitary come from?

A

Gut tissue

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45
Q

Examples of hypothalamus/anterior pituitary hormones

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) - Thyrotropin (controls thyroid)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - gonadotropins (control gonads)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) - Corticotropin (control adrenal cortex)

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46
Q

Examples of hypothalamus/anterior pituitary hormones

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) - Thyrotropin (controls thyroid)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - gonadotropins (control gonads)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) - Corticotropin (control adrenal cortex)
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GhRH) - Growth hormone (non-tropic, promotes growth)

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47
Q

What is tropic?

A

Have other endocrine glands as targets

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48
Q

What is non-tropic?

A

Directly stimulates target cells to induce effects

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49
Q

What are examples of growth hormone defects?

A

Gigantism and pituitary dwarfism

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50
Q

What controls hormone secretion?

A

Negative feedback loop

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51
Q

What is the process of releasing a hormone?

A

External or internal conditions -> hypothalamus -> releasing hormone -> anterior pituitary -> tropic hormone -> endocrine gland -> hormone

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52
Q

What is the long loop negative feedback for hormone secretion?

A

Inhibit hypothalamus which inhibits the releasing hormone, thus inhibiting anterior pituitary and the tropic hormone. OR inhibit the anterior pituitary

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53
Q

What is the short loop negative feedback for hormone secretion?

A

Most likely there is too much tropic hormone, so inhibit hypothalamus to stop releasing hormone, which will stop the anterior pituitary

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54
Q

What does the thyroid gland produce and store?

A

Thyroxine and calcitonin

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55
Q

What is thyroxine?

A

A hormone in the thyroid gland that elevates metabolic rate so it’s important for development and growth (provides energy for our growth)

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56
Q

What does calcitonin stimulate?

A

Stimulates incorporation of calcium into bone

In thyroid gland

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57
Q

What is the negative feedback regulation of thyroxine?

A

External or internal conditions -> hypothalamus -> release of TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone) -> anterior pituitary -> release of TSH (thyro

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58
Q

What is the negative feedback regulation of thyroxine?

A

External or internal conditions -> hypothalamus -> release of TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone) -> anterior pituitary -> release of TSH (thyrotropin: thyroid stimulating hormone) -> thyroid -> thyroxine

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59
Q

What is goiter?

A

Enlarged thyroid gland. Affects 5% of world’s population. Caused by both hyperthyroidism (too much thyroxine) and hypothyroidism (too little thryoxine)

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60
Q

What is Grave’s disease?

A

An autoimmune disease (immune system attacks itself), high metabolic rates, feel hot, eyes bulge

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61
Q

What is Grave’s disease?

A

An autoimmune disease (immune system attacks itself), high metabolic rates, feel hot, eyes bulge

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62
Q

How does hyperthyroidism work in causing goiter?

A

Excess thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate, more heat generated, high storage of fat under eye. Antibody-binding from Grave’s disease activates TSH receptors on thyroid and increases thyroxine. Thyroid remains stimulated and grows bigger

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63
Q

How does hyperthyroidism work in causing goiter?

A

Excess thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate, more heat generated, high storage of fat under eye. Antibody-binding from Grave’s disease activates TSH receptors on thyroid and increases thyroxine. Thyroid remains stimulated and grows bigger. TRH and TSH both decrease because of negative feedback.

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64
Q

What is Cretinism?

A

low metabolism, intolerance to cold, physical and mental retardation

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65
Q

What is the most common cause of hypothyroidism?

A

Iodine deficiency –> can’t produce functional thyroxine

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66
Q

What is needed for thyroxine synthesis?

A

Iodine-T3 and T4. Majority of thyroxine is T4 but T3 is much more active than T4.

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67
Q

How do we solve the iodine deficiency?

A

Supply salt w/ iodine in countries lacking iodine

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68
Q

How does hypothyroidism work in causing goiter?

A

deficiency in thyroxine from iodine –> negative feedback loop keeps producing more TRH and TSH but the thyroid is still unable to produce thyroxine

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69
Q

How does hypothyroidism work in causing goiter?

A

deficiency in thyroxine from iodine –> negative feedback loop keeps producing more TRH and TSH but the thyroid is still unable to produce thyroxine

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70
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

On top of kidneys like little pets

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71
Q

What two glands make up the adrenal glands?

A

Cortex and medulla

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72
Q

What is the cortex controlled by?

A

Corticotropin

73
Q

What is the medulla controlled by?

A

CNS

74
Q

What hormones are in the cortex?

A

Cortisol, aldosterone, sex steroids

75
Q

What is cortisol?

A

mediates metabolic responses to stress; inhibits immune system (suppressed when someone else is more important); long-lasting effect on body

76
Q

What is aldosterone?

A

Salt water balance (salt retention, water retention–kidneys)

77
Q

Where is the cortex located?

A

In the external party of the adrenal gland

78
Q

Where is the medulla located?

A

In the internal part of the adrenal gland; neurotissue/neuronal tissue

79
Q

Which hormones are in the medulla?

A

Epinephrine (mainly) and norepinephrine – fight or flight response

80
Q

What is norepinephrine

A

Noradrenaline. More secreted from neurons (sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system)

81
Q

What are the Islets of Langerhans?

A

clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas that produce three different hormones

82
Q

What cells are located in the islets?

A

Beta cells, alpha cells, delta cells

83
Q

What cells are located in the islets?

A

Beta cells, alpha cells, delta cells

84
Q

What do beta cells produce?

A

Insulin for glucose uptake

85
Q

What do alpha cells produce?

A

Glucagon to stimulate the liver to convert glycogen (storage of glucose) to glucose

86
Q

What is glycogen?

A

storage of glucose

87
Q

What do delta cells produce?

A

Somatostatin-inhibits release of both insulin and glucagon

88
Q

What do delta cells produce?

A

Somatostatin–inhibits release of both insulin and glucagon

89
Q

How does insulin work in glucose metabolism?

A

GLUT4 which is the glucose transporter is not normally available on the membrane – glucose binds with insulin receptor on membrane – triggers long series of events until GLUT4 on membrane – GLUT4 can pick up glucose

90
Q

What happens if the blood glucose drops below normal?

A

Stimulates pancreas to secrete glucagon -> increases circulating glucagon -> breakdown of glycogen in liver -> release of glucose to blood -> blood glucose level rises

91
Q

What is glucagon?

A

Stimulates liver to release glucose from glycogen (glucose storage)

92
Q

What happens if the blood glucose rises above normal?

A

Stimulates pancrease to secrete insulin -> increase in circulating insulin -> uptake of glucose by cells -> metabolic energy production, fat synthesis, glycogen synthesis -> blood glucose level drops

93
Q

What happens if the blood glucose rises above normal?

A

Stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin -> increase in circulating insulin -> uptake of glucose by cells -> metabolic energy production, fat synthesis, glycogen synthesis -> blood glucose level drops

94
Q

What happens if the blood glucose rises above normal?

A

Stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin -> increase in circulating insulin -> uptake of glucose by cells -> metabolic energy production, fat synthesis, glycogen synthesis -> blood glucose level drops

95
Q

What is diabetes mellitus?

A

High blood and urine glucose (too much sugar)

96
Q

What are some symptoms of diabetes mellitus?

A

Increased urine output, dehydration, weakness (no fuel), lethargy (proteins burn out), body wasting (use fat storage, protein for energy)

97
Q

What are some complications of diabetes?

A

Heart disease, stroke, hypertension, kidney disease, blindness, nervous disorders, amputation, etc.

98
Q

How was diabetes originally diagnosed in India?

A

Urine-put out for ants or doctors would taste it

99
Q

What is Type I (Juvenile onset) diabetes?

A

Beta cell dysfunction –> lack of insulin

100
Q

What happens when blood glucose level is high for someone with Type I diabetes?

A

Stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin -> can’t increase insulin -> can’t uptake glucose -> can’t have metabolic energy production etc -> blood glucose level does not drop

101
Q

What happens when blood glucose level is high for someone with Type II diabetes?

A

stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin -> increase in circulating insulin -> can’t uptake glucose by cells -> no metabolic energy production, etc. -> blood glucose level does not drop

102
Q

What is Type II (Adult onset) diabetes?

A

Insulin responsiveness deficiency (no response to insulin)

103
Q

What is the percentage of diabetes that is type II?

A

more than 80%

104
Q

What is pancreas burnout?

A

High glucose levels stimulates pancreas to create more insulin -> gets exhausted, very tired -> pancreas burnout in later stages where the body can’t produce insulin (like type I)

105
Q

What is pancreas burnout?

A

For type II. High glucose levels stimulates pancreas to create more insulin -> gets exhausted, very tired -> pancreas burnout in later stages where the body can’t produce insulin (like type I)

106
Q

Who discovered insulin?

A

Frederick Banting and Charles Best, student of Banting. Won Nobel Prize. Found by dog’s pancreas (insulin produced to help humans)

107
Q

Who discovered insulin?

A

Frederick Banting and Charles Best, student of Banting. Won Nobel Prize. Found by dog’s pancreas (insulin produced to help humans)

108
Q 
In the disease diabetes mellitus, a lack of insulin prevents:
A. The excretion of glucose
B. Glucose breakdown
C. Glucose uptake by cells
D. Conversion of glucose to glycogen
E. Glucose synthesis
A

C

109
Q

What are male hormones generally called?

A

Androgens

110
Q

What is the dominant form of male hormone?

A

Testosterone

111
Q

What does testosterone do?

A

Muscle and bone growth (muscular, taller, lower voice), male characteristics, aggressive

112
Q

What are female hormones?

A

Estrogen and progesterone

113
Q

What is the dominant form of estrogen?

A

Estradiol

114
Q

What is estradiol?

A

dominant form of estrogen; female characteristics –breasts, curvy, more fat and less muscle
Synthesized from testosterone by aromatase (an enzyme)

115
Q

How does testosterone regulation work in males?

A

Hypothalamus -> GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) -> anterior pituitary -> Luteinizing hormone (LH) -> testes -> testosterone
Long loop goes to anterior or hypothalamus. Short loop goes from LH to hypothalamus

116
Q

What happens if there is too much testosterone (overuse of steroids) in males?

A

Long loop–less GnRH, LH. Thus less sperm produced (testes) and less fertility with too much testosterone

117
Q

What happens if there is too much testosterone (overuse of steroids) in females?

A

Long loop–less GnRH, LH, FSH. Ovary is inhibited and estrogen and other female hormones won’t be produced (less female characteristics).

118
Q

What hormone is important for testosterone in males?

A

LH

119
Q

What hormone is important for regulating ovaries in females?

A

LH and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

120
Q

What hormone is important for regulating ovaries in females?

A

LH and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

121
Q

What does sexual reproduction involve and why is it important?

A

Involves shuffling of genetic information; increases genetic material for survival

122
Q

What are the three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction?

A

Gametogenesis, mating, and fertilization

123
Q

What is gametogenesis?

A

Making gametes

124
Q

What is mating?

A

Getting gametes together

125
Q

What is fertilization?

A

Fusing gametes

126
Q

What is gametogenesis?

A

Making gametes (produces cells needed for reproduction)

127
Q

What is fertilization?

A

Fusing gametes

128
Q

What are gametes?

A

Cells specialized for production

129
Q

What are the 2 gametes?

A

Female egg and male sperm

130
Q

Haploid

A

For each gene/chromosome, we have 2 copies of each gene. Gametes are haploid–only 1 copy

131
Q

Where does gametogenesis occur?

A

In gonads

132
Q

What are the 2 gonads?

A

Testes, ovaries

133
Q

What are the 2 gonads?

A

Testes, ovaries

134
Q

What are the two parts to the human reproductive system?

A

Primary sex organs and accessory sex organs

135
Q

What are primary sex organs and what do they do?

A

Gonads: testes and ovaries. Produce gametes and secrete hormones

136
Q

What are accessory sex organs?

A

External genitalia (penis and vagina) and glands, tubules, and ducts

137
Q

What does vas deferens do?

A

Transports sperm to ejaculatory duct

138
Q

What do glands do for the male reproductive system?

A

Secrete semen components

139
Q

What is semen for?

A

Provide nutrients, facilitate sperm movements, etc.

140
Q

What does the sperm join to in the end and from where?

A

From ejaculatory duct to the urethra

141
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

Stores sperm (hat on top of testes)

142
Q

What do testes do?

A

Generate sperm

143
Q

What do testes do?

A

Generate sperm

144
Q

What is the regulation of the male reproductive system?

A

Hypothalamus –> GnRH –> Anterior pituitary –> LH or FSH –> Leydig cells or Sertoli cells -> testosterone or spermatogenesis -> reproductive tract and other organs or STOPS
Testosterone–negative feedback loop

145
Q

What is the regulation of the male reproductive system?

A

Hypothalamus –> GnRH –> Anterior pituitary –> LH or FSH –> Leydig cells or Sertoli cells -> testosterone or spermatogenesis -> reproductive tract and other organs or STOPS
Testosterone–negative feedback loop

146
Q

Which of the following treatments would not help a patient with advanced prostate cancer?
A. Blocking Luteinizing Hormones
B. Remove testes
C. Blocking gonadotropin-releasing hormone
D. Blocking the action of testosterone
E. Cutting vas deferens associated with testis

A

E because testosterone goes everywhere through the blood

147
Q

Which of the following treatments would not help a patient with advanced prostate cancer?
A. Blocking Luteinizing Hormones
B. Remove testes
C. Blocking gonadotropin-releasing hormone
D. Blocking the action of testosterone
E. Cutting vas deferens associated with testis

A

E because testosterone goes everywhere through the blood

148
Q

How does one get prostate cancer?

A

Prostate gland growth stimulated by testosterone

149
Q

How does one get prostate cancer?

A

Prostate gland growth stimulated by testosterone

150
Q

What does the fimbria do?

A

Swoops up the egg from the ovary like a mop or Venus fly trap

151
Q

What does the ovary do?

A

Produce eggs and hormones, ovulates the egg

152
Q

What is the endometrium (REMEMBER!)

A

the lining of the uterus

153
Q

What is the endometrium (REMEMBER!)

A

the lining of the uterus
Endo: in
Metrium: ..

154
Q

What is the uterus for?

A

Fetus growth

155
Q

How do sperm and egg meet?

A

Sperm has flagella to move and must move its way up to the oviduct and meet halfway

156
Q

What is an oviduct (Fallopian tube)?

A

Kind of like an esophagus –squeezes the egg. Cilia inside helps egg move a little bit

157
Q

What happens in the Ovarian cycle?

A

Produces eggs and hormones

158
Q

What happens in the uterine or menstrual cycle?

A

Prepares the uterus endometrium for fertilized egg

159
Q

What is the average length of 1 cycle in a women’s reproductive system?

A

28 days

160
Q

What events occur in the ovarian cycle?

A

oocyte maturation (1) –> developing follicle (7) –> ovulation (14) –> corpus luteum (21) –> developing oocyte (28)

161
Q

What is a developing follicle?

A

Vesicle that contains egg, also produces hormone (mainly estrogen)

162
Q

What happens at ovulation?

A

Egg is matured: released from ovaries

163
Q

What is the corpus luteum?

A

Remaining part of follicle; important for secreting hormones estrogen and progesterone; degrades by day 28

164
Q

What happens in the uterine cycle?

A

gets thinner from day 1 to day 3 or 4 (bleeding and sloughing-menstruation) –> rapid growth of endometrium (highly proliferated and vascularized endometrium) –> doesn’t stop growing at day 14 –> a week or so after, it stops growing (allows time for the egg to be fertilized) –> no egg then plateaus and stops growing

165
Q

How does ovarian and uterine cycles hormone regulation work?

A

Hypothalamus –> GnRH –> anterior pituitary –> LH/FSH –> ovary –> estrogen and progesterone –> uterus

166
Q

How does ovarian and uterine cycles hormone regulation work?

A

Hypothalamus –> GnRH –> anterior pituitary –> LH/FSH –> ovary –> estrogen and progesterone –> uterus
Regulates estrogen and progesterone through anterior and hypothalamus.

167
Q

What are the hormonal changes accompanying the cycles for LH, FSH, estrogen, and progesterone for females?

A

LH: peaks right before ovulation
FSH: higher than LH at day 1, peaks a little right before ovulation
estrogen: peaks before day 14
progesterone: peaks after ovulation; if fertilized egg arrives, it will start increasing. No fertilized egg–> reduce progesterone

168
Q

What are the hormonal changes accompanying the cycles for LH, FSH, estrogen, and progesterone for females?

A

LH: peaks right before ovulation
FSH: higher than LH at day 1, peaks a little right before ovulation
estrogen: peaks before day 14
progesterone: peaks after ovulation; if fertilized egg arrives, it will start increasing. No fertilized egg–> reduce progesterone

169
Q

What is fertilization?

A

union of sperm and egg

170
Q

What does union of sperm and egg create?

A

a single cell called a zygote

171
Q

What does a zygote develop into?

A

an embryo

172
Q

What is a mammal egg surrounded by?

A

the cumulus

173
Q

What is the cumulus?

A

A gelatinous matrix that sperm must get through to get to an egg

174
Q

What is the zona pellucida?

A

a glycoprotein envelope beneath the cumulus –sperm recognition. Has a protein that recognizes only human sperm

175
Q

What is the zona pellucida?

A

a glycoprotein envelope beneath the cumulus –sperm recognition. Has a protein that recognizes only human sperm. If you remove this, you can have a human hamster fertilization but it won’t grow

176
Q

what is the ovum?

A

the egg

177
Q

what is in vitro fertilization and who discovered it?

A

inserting the egg and sperm from pipettes. Robert Edwards, Nobel Prize

178
Q

what is in vitro fertilization and who discovered it?

A

inserting the egg and sperm from pipettes. Robert Edwards, Nobel Prize

179
Q 
Which of the following hormones will decline immediately after a surgery that removes both ovaries?
A. Luteinizing hormone
B. Gonadotropin releasing hormone
C. Follicle stimulating hormone
D. Estrogen
E. All of the above
A

D

LS 2 (7 decks)

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