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Lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are receptors?

A

Proteins that have binding sites for signal molecules

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2
Q

What are signal molecules?

A

Molecules that bind to receptors (proteins)

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3
Q

What are the two types of receptors?

A

Transmembrane receptors and intracellular receptors

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4
Q

What are ion channels?

A

Receptors that can bind to a signal molecule and open up to allow different ions to come through

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5
Q

What are ion channels?

A

Receptors that can bind to a signal molecule and open up to allow different ions to come through

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6
Q

What are ion channels?

A

Receptors that can bind to a signal molecule and open up to allow different ions to come through

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7
Q

What is a ligand?

A

Stimulus molecule

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8
Q

What does a pump do?

A

Actively moves ions

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9
Q

In an Na+-K+ pump, Na+ is ___ and K+ is ___

A

out, in

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10
Q

In an Na+-K+ pump, Na+ is ___ and K+ is ___

A

out, in (preferred high Na+ concentration outside of cell and preferred high K+ concentration inside of cell)

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11
Q

What do ions move along?

A

The concentration gradient (high to low)

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12
Q

What is a leak channel?

A

Leak K+ channel: constantly open, lets K+ ions out of cell

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13
Q

What are gated Na+ channels?

A

Channels that only open in certain conditions (ex. too much positive charged ions outside of cell), lets Na+ ions inside cell

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14
Q

What are gated Na+ channels?

A

Channels that only open in certain conditions (ex. too much positive charged ions outside of cell), lets Na+ ions inside cell

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15
Q

What is the charge of a membrane potential in a regular cell?

A

Negative (because of K+ leak channel). More positive charges outside; interior more negative

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16
Q

How is the membrane potential determined?

A

By electrical charges

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17
Q

What are the names of the closed channels for Na+ and K+?

A

Voltage-gated Na+ channels, chemically gated K+ channels

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18
Q

What is the resting potential?

A

Membrane potential at a steady state; more negative inside because more K+ goes outside, so the membrane potential is around -60mV

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19
Q

What is action potential generated by?

A

By excitable cells/by the action of different neurons or muscle cells

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20
Q

When does action potential happen?

A

When voltage-gated Na+ channels open

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21
Q

What is another name for action potential?

A

Depolarization–driving force for actions so we can do things. Polarized to less polarized/more positive –> called depolarization

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22
Q

What happens during action potential?

A

Inside will become less negative because voltage-gated Na+ channels open. Causes a rise in membrane potential because more positive are coming in (above 50mV).

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23
Q

Why does action potential happen so fast?

A

Because channels open very fast when the limit of positive cells is reached.

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24
Q

How is there restoration of the resting potential?

A

By opening the voltage-gated K+ channels. Too much + inside the cell –> let K+ out –> more - inside the cell –> action potential will drop

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25
Q

Why does restoration of the resting potential occur?

A

Because there are too many positive charges coming into the cell

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26
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

When the membrane potential becomes more negative before it comes back to resting potential because the gates are closing slowly.

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27
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

When the membrane potential becomes more negative before it comes back to resting potential because the gates are closing slowly.

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28
Q

What is the sensory system made up of?

A

Sensory cells (carry receptors), sensory organs (nose–>sensory cells inside cells), and neural network (sense something–>electrical signal back to brain)

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29
Q

What is the sensory system made up of?

A

Sensory cells (carry receptors), sensory organs (nose–>sensory cells inside cells), and neural network (sense something–>electrical signal back to brain)

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30
Q

What are the three different stimuli, and what do they activate?

A

Chemical stimuli, mechanical stimuli, and light. Activate chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and photoreceptors

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31
Q

Which senses are involved in chemoreceptors?

A

Smell (olfactory) and taste (gustatory)

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32
Q

Which senses are involved in mechanoreceptors?

A

Touch and pressure (somatosensory), sound (auditory), equilibrium-making (vestibular)

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33
Q

Which senses are involved in photoreceptors?

A

Visual system

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34
Q

Which senses are involved in photoreceptors?

A

Visual system

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35
Q

What senses are in the somatosensory system?

A

Touch and pressure

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36
Q

What senses are in the vestibular system?

A

Equilibrium-making

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37
Q

What senses are in the vestibular system?

A

Equilibrium-making (balance, movement)

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38
Q

How do sensory receptors respond to stimuli?

A

By directly or indirectly opening or closing ion channels

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39
Q

What is ionotropic?

A

Directly affecting (opening/closing) ion channels

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40
Q

What is metabotropic?

A

Indirectly affecting (opening/closing) ion channels through messengers

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41
Q

What are ionotropic sensory receptors?

A

Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and electroreceptors

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42
Q

What are metabotropic sensory receptors?

A

Chemoreceptors and photoreceptors

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43
Q

What are metabotropic sensory receptors?

A

Chemoreceptors and photoreceptors

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44
Q

What are metabotropic sensory receptors?

A

Chemoreceptors and photoreceptors

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45
Q

What is the stimulus for mechanoreceptors?

A

Pressure–> pressure-sensitive cation channel

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46
Q

What is the stimulus for thermoreceptors?

A

Warmth attaches to a protein attached to the channel –> temperature-sensitive cation channel opens

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47
Q

What is the stimulus for electroreceptors?

A

Electrical charges –> opens voltage-gated Ca2+/Na+/K+/etc channel

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48
Q

What is the stimulus for electroreceptors?

A

Electrical charges –> opens voltage-gated Ca2+/Na+/K+/etc channel

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49
Q

What happens with a chemoreceptor?

A

A taste/smell molecule binds to a receptor –> triggers change in the G protein (messenger) –> triggers change in the second messenger –> opens Na+ or K+ ion channel

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50
Q

What happens with a photoreceptor?

A

Light stimulates a photoreceptor –> triggers change in G protein –> triggers change in second messenger –> opens cGMP-gated Na+ channel

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51
Q

What happens with a chemoreceptor?

A

A taste/smell molecule binds to a receptor –> triggers change in the G protein (messenger) –> triggers change in the second messenger –> opens Na+ or K+ ion channel Signal transduction events happen to affect ion channel indirectly

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52
Q

What happens with a photoreceptor?

A

Light stimulates a photoreceptor –> triggers change in G protein –> triggers change in second messenger –> opens cGMP-gated Na+ channel Signal transduction events happen to affect ion channel indirectly

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53
Q

What happens with a photoreceptor?

A

Light stimulates a photoreceptor –> triggers change in G protein –> triggers change in second messenger –> opens cGMP-gated Na+ channel Signal transduction events happen to affect ion channel indirectly

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54
Q

Example of stimuli to action potential (stretch in muscles)

A

Stimuli: stretch –> activates opening of ion channels in stretch receptor (ionotropic) –> small changes in resting potentials (voltage from the stretch receptor neuron) –> action potentials generated in the axon hillock –> action potentials travel down the neuron on the axon

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55
Q

What do axons of sensory cells carry, and where do they carry them to?

A

Action potentials to specific parts of the CNS

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56
Q

What does sensation depend on?

A

On which part of the CNS receives the sensory messages

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57
Q

What is the intensity of sensation coded as?

A

The frequency of action potentials (e.g. smell of pizza is stronger the closer you are to it)

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58
Q

What is receptor adaptation?

A

Diminishing response to repeated stimulation

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59
Q

What does receptor adaptation enable animals to do?

A

Ignore background conditions but remain sensitive to changes or new stimuli

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60
Q

What is receptor adaptation?

A

Diminishing response to repeated stimulation Ex. feeling of clothes on your body

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61
Q

What does receptor adaptation enable animals to do?

A

Ignore background conditions but remain sensitive to changes or new stimuli

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62
Q

Do all sensory cells adapt? If not, which ones don’t?

A

No. Pain receptors, mechanoreceptors for balance

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63
Q

Do all sensory cells adapt? If not, which ones don’t?

A

No. Pain receptors, mechanoreceptors for balance

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64
Q

What can generate action potentials?

A

Receptors and neurons

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65
Q

Why can’t you smell when you’re sick?

A

The mucus film layer gets thick, so odorant molecules can’t get through and you can’t smell.

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66
Q

Why can’t you smell when you’re sick?

A

The mucus film layer gets thick, so odorant molecules can’t get through and you can’t smell.

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67
Q

What are glomeruli, and what system are they in?

A

multiple receptors combined, olfactory system

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68
Q

What are glomeruli, and what system are they in?

A

multiple receptors combined (combination of complex odorants), olfactory system

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69
Q

What are ORN?

A

Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose

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70
Q

What type of receptor is a chemoreceptor?

A

Metabotropic

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71
Q

What type of receptor is a photoreceptor?

A

Metabotropic

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72
Q

What type of receptor is a mechanoreceptor?

A

Ionotropic

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73
Q

What type of receptor is a thermoreceptor?

A

Ionotropic

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74
Q

What type of receptor is an electroreceptor?

A

Ionotropic

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75
Q

What happens in the opening of ion channels by odorant-olfactory receptor neuron binding (4 steps)?

A
  1. Binding of an odorant to its receptor activates a G protein. 2. G protein (GTP) activates synthesis of cAMP on the second messenger (ATP to cAMP) 3. cAMP causes ion channels to open (Ca2+/Na+ enters cell) 4. Changes in ion concentrations inside cell initiate a signal to the brain, which perceives the signal as a scent
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76
Q

Why can many more odorants be discriminated than there are olfactory receptors?

A

More smells than receptors because they can combine odors (glomeruli)

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77
Q

Why can many more odorants be discriminated than there are olfactory receptors?

A

More smells than receptors because they can combine odors (glomeruli)

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78
Q

Why can many more odorants be discriminated than there are olfactory receptors?

A

More smells than receptors because they can combine odors (glomeruli)

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79
Q

What are papilla?

A

bumps on the tongue

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80
Q

What are the taste bud sensory cells?

A

Cells on the sides of the papilla

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81
Q

What is the purpose of microvilli?

A

Increase the sensitivity to sense molecule on the tongue

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82
Q

Why is the structure of sensory cells on the gustatory system the way it is (taste)?

A

Many sensory cells –> larger surface area, more taste buds can be there. Taste buds can be soaked into one little area –> better contact with tastes

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83
Q

What are the 5 tastes a human can experience? What other two are there, and what do those involve?

A

Salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami Spicy/hot involve heat sensors Minty involves cold sensors

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84
Q

What is umami?

A

A savory, meaty taste from the amino acid proteins

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85
Q

What does the full complexity of taste involve?

A

Both gustatory and olfactory receptors Ex. when sick, can’t taste because you can’t smell.

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86
Q

Do humans vary in sense of taste?

A

Yes. Wine tasters and chefs have more taste sensations because they have more sensory cells

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87
Q

What is the suffix for disorders of smell?

A

-osmias

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88
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one cannot smell?

A

Anosmia

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89
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one has a lower sensitivity to smell?

A

Hyposmia

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90
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one perceives smells differently?

A

Dysosmia

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91
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one cannot taste?

A

Ageusias

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92
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one has a lower sensitivity to taste?

A

Hypogeusias

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93
Q

What is the name for the disorder in which one perceives taste differently?

A

Dysgeusias

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94
Q

What is the suffix for disorders of taste?

A

-geusias

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95
Q

What senses are in the somatosensory system?

A

Touch and pressure (somato: body)

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96
Q

What is the suffix for disorders of taste?

A

-geusias

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97
Q

What kind of stimuli is smell?

A

Chemical

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98
Q

What kind of stimuli is taste?

A

Chemical

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99
Q

What kind of stimuli are touch and pressure?

A

Mechanical

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100
Q

What kind of stimuli is sound?

A

Mechanical

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101
Q

What kind of stimuli is equilibrium-maintaining?

A

Mechanical

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102
Q

What kind of stimuli is visual?

A

Light

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103
Q

What does the somatosensory system involve?

A

Mechanoreceptors

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104
Q

How does one sense objects externally?

A

Through touch receptors in the skin–difference in the density of touch receptors along the body.

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105
Q

Where is there a high density of touch receptors, and where is there a low density?

A

Lips and fingertips; back

106
Q

How does one sense objects externally?

A

Through touch receptors in the skin (many varieties of touch receptors)–difference in the density of touch receptors along the body.

107
Q

Where is there a high density of touch receptors, and where is there a low density?

A

Lips and fingertips; back

108
Q

What is the two point discrimination test?

A

Use 2 toothpicks on the fingertips and back. See if you can distinguish the two

109
Q

How do we internally sense position and movement of our body parts (somatosensory–mechanoreceptors)

A

Through the stimulation of stretch receptors in muscles and joints

110
Q

What are the mechanoreceptors in the muscle?

A

Muscle spindles

111
Q

What are the mechanoreceptors/stretch receptors in the muscle?

A

Muscle spindles

112
Q

What are muscle spindles?

A

Stretch receptors within the muscle that detect changes in the length of the muscle Specialized modified muscle cells that have sensory nerves surrounding them and are wrapped around connective tissue

113
Q

What are muscle spindles?

A

Stretch receptors within the muscle that detect changes in the length of the muscle Specialized modified muscle cells that have sensory nerves surrounding them and are wrapped around connective tissue

114
Q

What happens when you’re holding a heavy object?

A

It stretches your muscle cells which triggers changes in ion channel (ionotropic) –> changes membrane potential –> downstream AP to neurons to brain –> brain sends signal to motor neuron to the muscle, asking the muscle to contract to keep your hand steady

115
Q

What are the Golgi Tendon organs?

A

Mechanoreceptors in joints

116
Q

What are the mechanoreceptors in joints?

A

Golgi Tendon organs

117
Q

What does the Golgi Tendon organ do?

A

Receptors that detect changes in muscle tension

118
Q

What does the Golgi Tendon organ do?

A

Receptors that detect changes in muscle tension; inhibits muscle contraction

119
Q

How does Golgi Tendon organ help with if muscle contraction is too much?

A

It will send inhibitor signals to the motor neuron to let the muscle relax (keep just the right amount of muscle contractions to hold object steady) Muscle contracts –> signal for Golgi tendon organ (induce changes in membrane potential for downstream AP to brain)

120
Q

How does Golgi Tendon organ help with if muscle contraction is too much?

A

It will send inhibitor signals to the motor neuron to let the muscle relax (keep just the right amount of muscle contractions to hold object steady) Muscle contracts –> signal for Golgi tendon organ (induce changes in membrane potential for downstream AP to brain)

121
Q

What are the similarities between the auditory and vestibular systems?

A

(sound and equilibrium-maintaining) –Use the same organs (ear) –Use mechanoreceptors called hair cells which live in stereocilia

122
Q

What are the similarities between the auditory and vestibular systems?

A

(sound and equilibrium-maintaining) –Use the same organs (ear) –Use mechanoreceptors called hair cells which live in stereocilia

123
Q

What are the similarities between the auditory and vestibular systems?

A

(sound and equilibrium-maintaining) –Use the same organs (ear) –Use mechanoreceptors called hair cells which live in stereocilia

124
Q

What are the mechanoreceptors used in auditory and vestibular systems?

A

Hair cells

125
Q

What are stereocilia?

A

fingerlike extensions of the cell membrane that are on hair cells

126
Q

What are stereocilia?

A

fingerlike extensions of the cell membrane that are on hair cells

127
Q

Where are the mechanosensors on hair cells?

A

On the stereocilia

128
Q

What happens when stereocilia moves to the left?

A

Ion channels open which changes membrane potential –> neurotransmitters trigger AP generation in neurons –> transmits sensory neuron to brain

129
Q

What happens when stereocilia moves to the right?

A

Ion channel closes

130
Q

What ion is involved in hair cells?

A

Ca2+

131
Q

What ion is involved in hair cells?

A

Ca2+

132
Q

What are sounds?

A

Pressure waves

133
Q

What do hair cells do?

A

Convert pressure waves into changes in resting potentials

134
Q

What do hair cells do?

A

Convert pressure waves into changes in resting potentials

135
Q

What does the pinna do?

A

Collect sound waves

136
Q

What does the tympanic membrane do?

A

Eardrum; converts sound waves to physical forces - vibrations

137
Q

What does the middle ear do?

A

Amplifies; as much as 20x amplified

138
Q

What are the smallest bones in the body?

A

Ossicles

139
Q

What are the 3 bones of the ossicles?

A

Malleus, Incus, Stapes

140
Q

What are the 3 bones of the ossicles?

A

Malleus, Incus, Stapes

141
Q

What does the Malleus do?

A

“little hammer” directly in contact with the tympanic membrane

142
Q

What does the Incus do?

A

“embryo” Malleus knocks on the Incus

143
Q

What does the Stapes do?

A

“stirrup” stirs up some liquid inside the inner ear (Incus to Stapes to oval window in inner ear)

144
Q

What is the oval window and where is it located?

A

A membrane that causes liquid to move inside; under stapes

145
Q

What happens during a flight?

A

There is less air pressure coming into the ear and there is more pressure past the tympanic membrane (which is connected to the throat) –> eardrum pops. You fix this by adjusting your throat pressure

146
Q

What happens during a flight?

A

There is less air pressure coming into the ear and there is more pressure past the tympanic membrane (which is connected to the throat) –> eardrum pops. You fix this by adjusting your throat pressure

147
Q

What does the vestibular nerve connect to?

A

the semicircular canal of the vestibular system

148
Q

What does the cochlear nerve connect to?

A

the cochlea

149
Q

What is the cochlea for?

A

hearing

150
Q

What is the semicircular canal of the vestibular system for?

A

balance/control

151
Q

What does the vestibulocochlear do?

A

joins vestibular and cochlea nerves

152
Q

What is the oval window and where is it located?

A

A membrane that causes liquid to move inside; under stapes connected to the vestibular system (semicircular canal)

153
Q

What does the vestibulocochlear do?

A

joins vestibular and cochlea nerves

154
Q

What does the vestibulocochlear nerve do?

A

joins vestibular and cochlea nerves

155
Q

what is the cochlea?

A

a tapered and coiled chamber composed of three parallel canals

156
Q

what are the three canals in the cochlea?

A

vestibular canal, cochlear canal, and tympanic canal

157
Q

what are the three canals in the cochlea?

A

vestibular canal, cochlear canal, and tympanic canal

158
Q

what is the order of the three canals in the cochlea when you unwrap them?

A

vestibular –> cochlear in the middle –> tympanic Vestibular connects to tympanic

159
Q

what is the order of the three canals in the cochlea when you unwrap them?

A

vestibular –> cochlear in the middle –> tympanic Vestibular connects to tympanic (any movement in vestibular will become movement in the tympanic canal)

160
Q

what is significant about the cochlear canal?

A

It has the most important sensory part of the ear here–hair cells

161
Q

What happens when movement comes to the tympanic canal?

A

It will flex the Basilar membrane

162
Q

What is significant about the Basilar membrane

A

It flexes: on top of this membrane is where hair cells are located

163
Q

What does the Organ of Corti do?

A

Transduces pressure waves into action potentials

164
Q

Where is the Organ of Corti?

A

on top of the Basilar membrane; has hair cells, stereocilia, and tectorial membrane

165
Q

What is significant about the Basilar membrane?

A

It flexes–> puts pressure on hair cells–> membrane potential changes –> AP –> sensory: on top of this membrane is where hair cells are located

166
Q

Where is the Organ of Corti?

A

on top of the Basilar membrane; has hair cells, stereocilia, and tectorial membrane

167
Q

How do you sense pressure waves in the inner ear?

A

Vibrations from tympanic membrane –> transmits vibrations into liquid at the stapes –> goes through oval window to vestibular canal as liquid movement –> Basilar membrane in the cochlear canal flexes and hair cells move (perceive as different types of sounds) –> goes to tympanic canal –> exits round window

168
Q

Where is and what is the round window?

A

On the tympanic canal; another membrane to release pressure

169
Q

How do you sense pressure waves in the inner ear?

A

Vibrations from tympanic membrane –> transmits vibrations into liquid at the stapes –> goes through oval window to vestibular canal as liquid movement –> Basilar membrane in the cochlear canal flexes and hair cells move (perceive as different types of sounds) –> goes to tympanic canal –> exits round window to release pressure

170
Q

Where is and what is the round window?

A

On the tympanic canal; another membrane to release pressure

171
Q

What is conduction deafness?

A

Loss of function of tympanic membrane and/or the middle ear (ossicles) More outer Can fix to a certain degree, doesn’t transfer sound properly

172
Q

What is conduction deafness?

A

Loss of function of tympanic membrane and/or the middle ear (ossicles) More outer Can fix to a certain degree, doesn’t transfer sound properly

173
Q

What is conduction deafness?

A

Loss of function of tympanic membrane and/or the middle ear (ossicles) More outer Can fix to a certain degree, doesn’t transfer sound properly

174
Q

What is nerve deafness?

A

Damage to hair cells or auditory nerve pathways Permanent Damage to the inner ear

175
Q

What is a common cause of nerve deafness?

A

Damaged hair cells in the organ of Corti by loud sounds. Cumulative and irreversible damage

176
Q

What is a common cause of nerve deafness?

A

Damaged hair cells in the organ of Corti by loud sounds. Cumulative and irreversible damage

177
Q

What makes up the vestibular system?

A

3 semicircular canals at angles to each other and 2 chambers

178
Q

What do hair cells do for the vestibular system?

A

Sense position and orientation of head

179
Q

What do hair cells do for the vestibular system?

A

Sense position and orientation of head

180
Q

What are the utricle and saccule?

A

2 bony little chambers filled with liquid in the vestibular system

181
Q

What are the two chambers in the vestibular system?

A

Utricle and saccule

182
Q

What are the utricle and saccule?

A

2 bony little chambers filled with liquid in the vestibular system; both have hair cells but look different from the semicircular canals

183
Q

What are the two chambers in the vestibular system?

A

Utricle and saccule

184
Q

What and where is the cupula?

A

Jelly-like structure with hair cells and stereocilia in the vestibular system; at the end of one of the semicircular ducts

185
Q

What happens in the vestibular system to allow ion channels to open and close in the chambers?

A

the bending of stereocilia from liquid and the body moving in opposite directions

186
Q

What is vertigo?

A

A problem with the vestibular system –> world is spinning in front of you

187
Q

What are otoliths and where are they located in what system?

A

Ear stones (calcium carbonate); on top of stereocilia in the utricle and saccule of the vestibular system Direction of body movement –> Force of gravity weighs down on the otoliths Stereocilia move

188
Q

What are otoliths and where are they located in what system?

A

Ear stones (calcium carbonate); on top of stereocilia in the utricle and saccule of the vestibular system Direction of body movement –> Force of gravity weighs down on the otoliths Stereocilia move

189
Q

What is the organ of the visual system?

A

Eye

190
Q

What does the visual system do?

A

Generates detailed images of the visual world

191
Q

What does the eye focus?

A

It focuses inverted images on a surface that is sensitive to light, like cameras

192
Q

What does the ciliary muscle do in what system?

A

Contracts to allow the lens to round out (bend light in different ways) in the visual system

193
Q

What is the iris in what system?

A

Color pigment, controls size of pupil based on light coming in

194
Q

What does the pupil do?

A

Allows light to go through and get detected Smaller if there’s too much light (allows control not to damage sensory cells) and bigger if there’s too little light so you can see

195
Q

What does the lens do?

A

Forms type of image in back of eye

196
Q

What does the lens do?

A

Forms type of image in back of eye on fovea –Flattens out to allow light to bend less if objects are far away –Bunches up to allow light to bend more if objects are close

197
Q

What is and what is on the fovea?

A

a bump on the retina; the most concentrated sensory cells; lens forms an image on the fovea

198
Q

What does the optic nerve do?

A

Transmits signals to the brain

199
Q

What is myopia?

A

Nearsighted (lens does not flatten out enough to see things – doesn’t reach the retina)

200
Q

What is hyperopia?

A

Farsighted (lens flattens out too much and goes past the retina–doesn’t reach the fovea)

201
Q

What is hyperopia?

A

Farsighted (lens flattens out too much and goes past the retina–doesn’t reach the fovea)

202
Q

What is the difference between receptors and receptor cells?

A

Receptors are proteins sitting on the inside or on membrane of a cell (aka receptor protein) Receptor cells are cells that receptors are sitting on or are inside of

203
Q

What is the difference between receptors and receptor cells?

A

Receptors are proteins sitting on the inside or on membrane of a cell (aka receptor protein) Receptor cells are cells that receptors are sitting on or are inside of

204
Q

Where are the sensory cells in the visual system?

A

On the retina

205
Q

Where are the sensory cells in the visual system?

A

On the retina

206
Q

What are photoreceptor cells of the retina?

A

Metabotropic sensory cells that transform light into action potentials

207
Q

What are the two photoreceptor cells of the retina?

A

Rod and cone cells

208
Q

What are the two photoreceptor cells of the retina?

A

Rod and cone cells

209
Q

What are rod cells?

A

highly light-sensitive and perceive shades of gray in dim light; night-time animals have more of this

210
Q

What are cone cells?

A

function at high light levels and are responsible for color vision humans have more of this

211
Q

What does fovea have a high density of?

A

Cone cells

212
Q

What does fovea have a high density of?

A

Cone cells

213
Q

What does light change?

A

the conformation of photoreceptor Rhodopsin

214
Q

What is the photoreceptor of the eye?

A

Rhodopsin

215
Q

What is Rhodopsin made of?

A

Opsin (protein) + 11-cis-retinal (light absorbing group)

216
Q

What is opsin?

A

The protein part of Rhodopsin

217
Q

What is 11-cis-retinal?

A

the light absorbing group of Rhodopsin; covalently bound to protein (opsin)

218
Q

What is 11-cis-retinal?

A

the light absorbing group of Rhodopsin; covalently bound to protein (opsin)

219
Q

What is 11-cis-retinal?

A

the light absorbing group of Rhodopsin; covalently bound to protein (opsin)

220
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

221
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin: GTP to GDP) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

222
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin: GTP to GDP–GDP released, GTP stays stuck on transducin) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

223
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin: GTP to GDP–GDP released, GTP stays stuck on transducin) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

224
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin: GTP to GDP–GDP released, GTP stays stuck on transducin) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

225
Q

What does light absorption do to the sodium channels? (Rod cells)

A

Closes them

226
Q

What does light absorption do to the sodium channels? (Rod cells)

A

Closes them

227
Q

What happens in darkness with rod cells?

A

The sodium channel is open. GTP forms GDP and cGMP is next to the sodium channel.

228
Q

How does the conformation of Rhodopsin change with light?

A

11-cis-retinal becomes All-trans-retinal when absorbing light –> Change in rhodopsin –> Change in G protein (transducin: GTP binds to G protein, transducin) –> activates secondary messenger –> ion channel closes/opens

229
Q

What happens in darkness with rod cells?

A

The sodium channel is open. GTP forms GDP and cGMP is next to the sodium channel.

230
Q

What happens in light with rod cells?

A

The sodium channel closes. GTP binds to transducin, transducin attaches to secondary messenger, cGMP pulls down from Na+ channel and forms GMP.

231
Q

What happens in light with rod cells?

A

The sodium channel closes. GTP binds to transducin, transducin attaches to secondary messenger, cGMP pulls down from Na+ channel and forms GMP.

232
Q

When light flashes, what happens to the membrane potential? What happens in the darkness?

A

Hyperpolarization: makes it more negative because ion channels close Depolarization

233
Q

How many different cone cells are there?

A

3

234
Q

What do the different cone cells do?

A

Detect different wavelengths (color perception–what we detect as color is a combination of all the different cone cells)

235
Q

What is the test for color blindness?

A

Ishihara Test

236
Q

What is color blindness?

A

When a person doesn’t have one or more types of cone cells and cannot detect certain colors.

237
Q

What is color blindness?

A

When a person doesn’t have one or more types of cone cells and cannot detect certain colors.

238
Q

What do rod and cone cells release when they detect light and color?

A

Neurotransmitters to additional layers of neuronal cells that generates action potential sent to the optic nerve

239
Q

Why do people see different colors?

A

May have different number of cone cells Brain adaptation–how we respond

240
Q

Why do people see different colors?

A

May have different number of cone cells Brain adaptation–how we respond

241
Q

What type of signal can go through the membrane?

A

Nonpolar signal

242
Q

What type of signal can’t go through the membrane?

A

Polar signal

243
Q

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LS 2 (7 decks)

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