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LS 2 > Lecture 1 > Flashcards

Lecture 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the hierarchy of organization?

A

Atoms to Molecules to Cells to Tissues to Organs to Organ Systems to Organisms

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2
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

the most important control system, fast-acting, responds to internal and external changes. Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system (spinal cord, nerves, brain, sensory receptor)

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3
Q

What is the musculoskeletal system?

A

made of bones and muscles, occupies most of body allows manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, produces heat (muscle)

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4
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

made of glands that secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use. all over the body: pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas (regulate glucose metabolism), ovary, testis

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5
Q

What do hormones regulate?

A

growth, reproduction, and nutrient use

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6
Q

What is the cardiovascular system?

A

Made of heart and blood vessels. Heart pumps blood. Blood vessels transport blood. Blood carries oxygen for metabolism and carbon dioxide as waste. Also carries nutrients to body and excretes wastes

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7
Q

What is the lymphatic/immune system?

A

Picks up liquids leaked from blood vessels and takes it back to the heart so it can go back to circulation. Houses white blood cells (immune cells or lymphocytes) to de

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8
Q

What is the lymphatic/immune system?

A

Picks up liquids leaked from blood vessels and takes it back to the heart so it can go back to circulation. Houses white blood cells (immune cells or lymphocytes) to defend our cells when bacteria or other things come in. Mounts attack against foreign substances in the body Red bone marrow (lymphocytes formed here), thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes

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9
Q

What is the respiratory system?

A

Keeps blood supplied with oxygen, removes carbon dioxide. Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in the lungs. Lungs, trachea, larynx, bronchus, pharynx, nasal cavity

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10
Q

What is the digestive system?

A

Breaks down food into absorbable units, indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces. Many different organs involved: oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

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11
Q

What is the urinary/excretory system?

A

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes. Regulates water, electrolyte (different ion concentrations), and acid-base balance. Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

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12
Q

What is the male reproductive system?

A

Produces offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones. Penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens, prostate gland

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13
Q

What is the female reproductive system?

A

Produces offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. Mammary glands produce milk. Mammary glands, uterus, vagina, ovary, uterine tube

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14
Q

What may be the smallest organ in the human system?

A

Ovary

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15
Q

What produces milk?

A

Mammary glands

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16
Q

What are the different organ systems (10)?

A

Nervous, musculoskeletal, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic/immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary/excretory, male reproductive, and female reproductive systems

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17
Q

What do organs consist of?

A

Multiple tissues

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18
Q

Label this diagram of a gut wall of the small intestine.

A
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19
Q

What are the four types of tissues?

A

Epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle tissues, and neural tissues

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20
Q

What are epithelial tissues?

A

Sheets of densely packed, tightly connected epithelial cells

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21
Q

Where are epithelial tissues located?

A
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22
Q

What are the 3 functions of epithelial tissues?

A

Create boundaries between inside/outside of the body and between body compartments

Transport and filter substances (e.g., ion)

Secrete substances (e.g., digestive juices, milk)

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23
Q

Label this diagram and identify what it is.

A
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24
Q

Label and identify.

A
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25
Q

Label and identify.

A
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26
Q

What are muscle tissues?

A
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27
Q

What are the most abundant tissues in the body?

A

Muscle tissues

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28
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissues?

A

Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

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29
Q

What are skeletal muscles mostly attached to?

A

Bones

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30
Q

What are skeletal muscles responsible for?

A

Locomotion and other body movements (e.g., breathing, shivering)

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31
Q

What is this?

A

Skeletal muscle.

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32
Q

What are some characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A

Highly organized structure, nuclei are squeezed to the side to maintain this structure.

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33
Q

What does the cardiac muscle make and what is it responsible for?

A

Makes up the heart, responsible for generating the heartbeat and moving the blood in the blood vessels (blood flow).

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34
Q

What is this? Label and describe features.

A

Cardiac muscle. Still organized, not as much as skeletal muscle. Stripes: variety of structure. Cells form branches and integrate with each other. Mesh-like structure allows cells to couple with each other better. Heart beat –> cells can go together. Heart attack is when different cells want to beat at different times

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35
Q

What causes a heart attack?

A

When different cardiac muscle cells want to beat at different times.

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36
Q

What does the smooth muscle make up?

A

The walls of internal organs (e.g., gut, bladder, blood vessels)

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37
Q

What is smooth muscle involved in?

A

Movement and generation of forces in internal organs

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38
Q

What is this?

A

Smooth muscle tissue

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39
Q

What is the structure of smooth muscle?

A

Smooth looking–don’t see the obvious stripes/organization like in skeletal and cardiac muscles

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40
Q

What is the function of connective tissue?

A

Connect, support, binds, or separate other tissues or organs

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41
Q

What is the main feature of connective tissues?

A

There is an extracellular matrix where relatively few cells are embedded (i.e., not densely packed unlike other tissues). The matrix contains protein fibers.

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42
Q

What are the 2 types of protein fibers in connective tissues, and where specifically are they located?

A

Collagen and elastin in the extracellular matrix

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43
Q

What is collagen?

A

A protein fiber in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues. Strong and resistant to tearing and stretching.

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44
Q

What is elastin?

A

Protein fiber in extracellular matrix of connective tissues that can be stretched and recoils

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45
Q

What is the proportion of collagen and elastin?

A

Can change depending on where the connective tissue is.

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46
Q

What are the 4 types of connective tissue?

A

Cartilage, bone, adipose, blood

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47
Q

What is the function of cartilage?

A

Cushions joints and provides structural support with flexibility (without it, one can get bone fractures)

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48
Q

What is another name for cartilage cells?

A

Chondrocytes

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49
Q

What is the structure of cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) not as tightly packed and surrounded by a matrix outside of the cells like big space-like structures

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50
Q

What is this? Label.

A

Cartilage

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51
Q

What is the function of bone?

A

Provides support

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52
Q

What is bone hardened by?

A

By calcium phosphate desposition in the matrix

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53
Q

What is this? Label

A

Bone.

Blood vessel is growing the cell. Little dots are different types of cells. Extracellular matrix is not obvious because many are calciumfied–all built with extracellular matrix material so you can’t see it clearly but there are many extracellular matrix surrounding the cell.

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54
Q

What is this? Label

A

Blood

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55
Q

What does blood consist of?

A

Cells floating in a very liquid extracellular matrix

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56
Q

What is the extracellular matrix of blood?

A

Blood plasma

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57
Q

What is the function of adipose?

A

Store energy (stores nutrients in droplets inside so it can provide when we need it), cushion organs, prevent heat loss (insulation layer and generate heat)

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58
Q

What are the two types of adipose?

A

White adipose and brown adipose

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59
Q

What is the function of white adipose?

A

Stores large droplets of lipids until we need it, secretes hormones that regulate our appetite, inflammatory molecules (produce inflammation signals that contribute to the immune system)

60
Q

Which adipose is the most prevalent in our bodies?

A

White adipose

61
Q

What was brown adipose thought to be before?

A

Only in babies, not in adults

62
Q

Where is brown adipose in adults?

A

In collarbone area

63
Q

What is the function of brown adipose?

A

Produces heat

64
Q

What is brown adipose packed with?

A

Mitochondria (can burn energy and produce heat) and blood vessels (carry oxygen to provide mitochondria to heat)

65
Q

Why does brown adipose look brown?

A

Because of lots of mitochondria

66
Q

Why is there increased interest in brown adipose?

A

If we produce more brown adipose, we can help combat obesity. It produces heat that can burn fat.

67
Q

What can mitochondria do?

A

Burn energy and produce heat

68
Q

What do blood vessels do for mitochondria?

A

Carry oxygen to provide mitochondria to heat.

69
Q

What do we need when we burn energy/have metabolism?

A

Blood vessels and mitochondria

70
Q

What is this?

A

White adipose. Droplets of lipids in cell makes the cell big; can take up most of the cell

71
Q

What is this?

A

Brown adipose. Looks more brown because of the mitochondria

72
Q

What are neural tissues for?

A

Processing information

73
Q

What are the two types of neural tissues?

A

Neurons and glial cells

74
Q

What do neurons do?

A

Encode and conduct information as electrical signals

Release chemical signals (neurotransmitters) to target cells

light electrical signals –> go through cells –> become chemical signals for next target cell

75
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical signals

76
Q

What are dendrites?

A

The finger/tree-like structure of a neuron

77
Q

What is an axon?

A

Extended line, a signal is transmitted through the axon

78
Q

What are axon terminals?

A

Release neurotransmitters (chemical signals/information to communicate with the next cell)

79
Q

What is this? Label.

A

Neuron

80
Q

What do glial cells do?

A

Provide support functions for neurons. Can release neurotransmitters and generate chemical signals. Cannot carry electrical signals.

81
Q

What is this? Label

A

Cell body of glial cells

82
Q

What is this? What are in green and what are in red?

A

Green: neurons

Red: glial cells

Touching each other: glial cells are there for support

83
Q

What do all cells need and how do they get these needs?

A

Nutrients, oxygen, and to eliminate waste products

Served by a stable internal environment of extracellular fluid: environment provides nutrients and oxygen, removes waste products, and is maintained by extracellular fluid

84
Q

How much of the body is water, and how much of water is inside cells?

A

2/3, 2/3

85
Q

What two fluids make up the internal environment for cells?

A

Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid (ECF)

86
Q

What are the two components to extracellular fluid?

A

Interstitial fluid and plasma

87
Q

Interstitial fluid is ___% of extracellular fluid.

Plasma is ___% of extracellular fluid.

A

80%, 20%

88
Q

Label.

A
89
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a narrow range of stable conditions in an internal environment to allow optimal body functions

90
Q

Label.

A

Set point –> Sensor tells what current temperature is in the regulatory system –> Controlled systems turn on depending on our set point and what the difference is between set point and current.

91
Q

What is the regulatory system?

A

System that obtains information through sensors, processes information, and integrates information, then issues commands to controlled systems.

Sets the desired point, obtains information, measures the environmental condition and compares to desired information, orders the other system around

92
Q

What are the two systems to control homeostasis?

A

Regulatory and controlled systems

93
Q

What is the controlled system?

A

System that contains effectors to effect changes in the internal environment; receives orders from the regulatory system to do something

94
Q

What is the set point?

A

A reference point or desired condition

95
Q

What does the sensor provide?

A

Feedback information, or what is happening in the system. It measure the condition.

96
Q

What is the error signal?

A

Difference between the set point and the feedback information (Set point - Feedback information; set point is ___ than the error message)

97
Q

What are the two types of feedback?

A

Negative and positive feedback

98
Q

What happens with negative feedback?

A

Effectors counteract the error signal (e.g., thermostat)

99
Q

What is the most common type of information?

A

Negative feedback

100
Q

What happens in positive feedback?

A

Amplifies a response, increases the deviation from a set point (e.g., birth process)

101
Q

What is feedforward information?

A

Changing the set point (e.g., exam time or a deer in the road when driving at the speed limit)

102
Q

What is the range of temperature for humans?

A

36.5-37.5 degrees Celsius or 97.7 to 99.5 degrees Fahrenheit

103
Q

At what temperature does heat stroke occur?

A

Greater than 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit)

104
Q

At what temperature does hypothermia occur?

A

Less than 35 degrees Celsius or 95 degrees Fahrenheit

105
Q

Why is temperature regulation important?

A

Because most cellular functions are limited to the range of 0-40° C in humans and animals and chemical reactions in the body are temperature-sensitive (higher temperature –> faster reaction; lower temperature –> slower reaction; rates are not all the same for different reactions; assembly line metaphor: can get very disorganized without regulation)

106
Q

What happens below 0°C?

A

Ice crystals form and damage cell strictures (water freezes)

107
Q

What happens above 40°C?

A

Proteins denature (structures change) and lose functions

108
Q

What are the thermal classifications of animals?

A

Ectotherms, endotherms, heterotherms

109
Q

What do ectotherms rely on?

A

The external temperature as their temperature. Can move around to regulate their temperature as needed. e.g., lizard

110
Q

How do endotherms regulate their temperature?

A

Through internal mechanisms; maintain a stable internal temperature. e.g., monkey

111
Q

What do heterotherms do?

A

Act as both ecto and endotherms sometimes. e.g., bear

112
Q

What determines the temperature of an organism?

A

Energy balance

113
Q

What is energy balance?

A

Heatin-Heatout

Determines temperature

Balance between heat absorbed and heat lost

114
Q

What is Heatin?

A

Heat absorbed (e.g., sun) + metabolism (internal heat generated)

115
Q

What is Heatout?

A

heat loss through surface areas (e.g., skin, lungs–breathing)

116
Q

What needs to be equal for a stable temperature?

A

Heatin=Heatout

117
Q

How does the body mainly generate heat?

A

Mainly through metabolism

–Blood vessels constrict, skeletal muscles contract, shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis

118
Q

What is metabolism?

A

Chemical reactions to break down and synthesize molecules

119
Q

In metabolism, what generally happens?

A

Some reactions absorb heat and others release heat, but generally, heat is generated.

120
Q

What happens if we increase the metabolic rate?

A

More heat is generated

121
Q

What happens if we decrease the metabolic rate?

A

Less heat is generated

122
Q

What increases the metabolic rate?

A

Contracting muscles and brown fat

123
Q

How does contracting muscle increase the metabolic rate?

A

Burns energy–> heat generated voluntarily or involuntarily

Ex. running is voluntary, shivering is involuntary

124
Q

How does brown fat increase the metabolic rate?

A

Because it has tissue that has mitochondria and blood vessels, brown fat generates heat.

125
Q

How does the body lose heat (2 ways)?

A

Mainly through surface areas: skin, lungs

Relaxing muscle to reduce metabolic rate (less heat generated)

Blood vessels dilate, skeletal muscles relax, panting, sweating

126
Q

How does the body lose heat through surface areas?

A

It increases blood flow in blood vessels (blood vessels dilate or open up to go faster) to carry heat from internal organs to the surface areas (skin)

Evaporate water (sweat) –> Release of heat

Increase breathing frequency (panting) –> Release heat

127
Q

What happens if you cool the hypothalamus?

A

Increases the metabolic rate and increases the body temperature

128
Q

What happens if you warm the hypothalamus?

A

Decreases the metabolic rate and lowers the body temperature

129
Q

What animal was used to discover that the hypothalamus controls the body temperature?

A

Ground squirrel–manipulating the hypothalamic temperature

130
Q

What is the regulatory system of mammals?

A

the hypothalamus

131
Q

In mammals, what is the set point generated by?

A

the hypothalamus

132
Q

What is the negative feedback information in mammals?

A

The hypothalamus temperature, which is a mostly stable temperature and is hard to change

133
Q

What is the sensor in mammals?

A

Skin temperature

134
Q

What is the feedforward information in mammals?

A

A change in skin temperature shifts the set point of the hypothalamus

135
Q

Label

A
136
Q

What is the thermoregulatory response of an endotherm to a rise in temperature?

A. Increased metabolic heat production

B. Resetting of the thermostat to a higher setting

C. Dilation of blood vessels

D. Overall increase in body temperature

E. Initiation of shivering movements

A

C. Dilation of blood vessels

137
Q

What is a fever and what is it caused by?

A

A rise in body temperature caused by pyrogens

138
Q

What do pyrogens cause?

A

A rise in the hypothalamus set point

139
Q

What are exogenous pyrogens?

A

External pyrogens–from foreign substances (comes into body –> immune response initiated)

e.g., bacteria or viruses

140
Q

What are endogenous pyrogens?

A

Internal–produced by immune cells in response to infection

141
Q

What does fever help?

A

Fight infections

142
Q

What does a fever mimic?

A

The reaction to cold (shivering)

143
Q

What type of feedback information does a fever send?

A

Negative feedback information (comparing Thypothalamus with the new set point)

144
Q

What do fever-reducing drugs do?

A

Cause a decrease in the temperature set point in the hypothalamus

145
Q

Label.

A

LS 2 (7 decks)

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