Lecture 3 - The Concept of Gender Flashcards
How is gender defined in social life?
Gender is one of the principles on which social life is organized, giving meaning to social relationships and structures.
What was the traditional assumption about gender differences?
It was assumed that gender differences were “natural” and based on a biological matrix.
How do social sciences contribute to understanding gender differences?
They investigate the social and cultural causes of gender differences, showing that biological explanations alone are insufficient.
What is “depth psychology”?
A branch of psychology that postulates the presence of the unconscious and argues that unconscious mechanisms play a key role in human behaviors.
Which psychologists contributed to understanding gender through depth psychology?
Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan.
How did depth psychology change perspectives on gender?
It challenged the idea that gender characteristics were fixed and invariable, showing they are constructed through lifelong psychic processes.
what position did the perspective of depth psychology overturn
Perspective overturns the positions according to which the characteristics of the sexes were fixed and invariable
What was Mathilde Vaerting’s main argument in “The Dominant Sex”?
She and Mathias Vaerting argued that male and female traits are not immutable but instead reflect power relations rooted in social structures.
What was the first general theory on gender proposed by Vaerting?
It focused on different spheres of gender domination, including the division of labor, law, and ideology.
How did Vaerting’s work challenge traditional gender norms?
She argued that what we define as “masculine” or “feminine” is culturally determined. In some societies where women were dominant, they exhibited traditionally “masculine” traits and customs.
What is Simone de Beauvoir’s famous quote about gender?
“One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”
What does De Beauvoir argue about gender differences?
Gender differences are not natural but the result of cultural and social conditioning.
How does society construct women, according to De Beauvoir?
Women are constructed as the “Other” by men, and society places the male perspective at the center, making men the absolute reference point while women define themselves in relation to men.
This vision justifies her hierarchical relationship with the feminine
What did De Beauvoir propose for women’s liberation?
Women must affirm themselves and embrace the “path of transcendence”—modifying and creating the world according to their own will rather than starting from men’s perspectives.
what did Simone de Beauvoir launch
She launched one off the most powerful political criticisms of female subordination
Who was Robert Stoller, and what was his contribution to gender studies?
Stoller was an American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who studied gender identity development and sexual arousal.
What distinction did Stoller make between sex and gender?
Sex: Biological differences between males and females.
Gender: A set of cultural expectations attributed to men and women.
What is the essentialist approach to gender?
It suggests that gender differences are innate and biologically determined.
How did the feminist movement of the 1970s challenge this view?
Feminist groups, particularly “difference feminism,” reflected on patriarchy, sexism, and the need for female subjectivity in discourse.
What was the core idea of difference feminism?
Women must claim their own difference and create a discourse where they are the subject rather than speaking through the language of the “Other”
According to difference feminism, in the history of civilization, man has been the only subject of discourse: female subjectivity has always been forced to speak about itself through the language of the Other
How did Luce Irigaray contribute to difference feminism?
She made a radical critique of “phallogocentrism,” arguing that the Western philosophical tradition prioritizes male-centered thought.
the idea behind their thinking is that valorizing the feminine, which can and must achieve equality only in its difference from the masculine
Taking up Simone De Beauvoir’s contribution, difference feminist places the problem of…
Taking up Simone De Beauvoir’s contribution, they placed the problem of the difference of the female subject at the center of their reflections
Who is Gayle Rubin, and what is she known for?
Rubin is a U.S. cultural anthropologist and sex-positive feminist theorist who introduced the concept of the “sex/gender system.”
How does Rubin define the sex/gender system?
“The set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity, and in which these transformed sexual needs are satisfied.”
What key question does Rubin ask in her critique of gender systems?
“What are these relationships by which a female becomes an oppressed woman?”
How does Rubin’s concept of the “sex/gender system” explain oppression?
The system transforms biological sex into social roles and expectations, which in turn create hierarchies of power that oppress women and LGBTQ+ individuals.
What is the significance of kinship systems in Rubin’s analysis?
Kinship systems structure gender and power relations, reinforcing the subordination of women through marriage and social exchange.
How does Rubin connect kinship systems to heteronormativity?
She argues that kinship systems are inherently heteronormative, meaning they dictate who people can marry and how gender roles function.
Mauss’ theory of the gift
gift-giving and gift-receiving is the dominating force in social life: “it expresses, affirms or created a social link between the partners of an exchange” thus marriage can be seen as a form of gift exchange in which women are the gifts and men do the exchanging
Lavi-Strauss’ theory of the incest taboo
the taboo against marrying within one’s family was created to sustain the formation of new kinship ties – women are the gifts that are transferred from one family to another, and thus are the ones who allow the men (the exchangers), to receive social power
how does rubin mean to foster the feminist revolution
“The subordination of women can be seen as a product of the relationships by which sex and gender are organized and produced”
Rubin’s feminist revolution lies in the reformation of
kinship systems, which are based on heteronormativity – the system that oppresses women is the same that oppresses those that are not heterosexual
according to rubin, the transcendence of oppression lies in the
removal of the idea of heteronormativity and how this idea guides our everyday lives
How does Foucault define human experience in relation to discourse?
Human experience is always shaped by discourse, meaning the way we understand the world is framed by language and knowledge systems.
What are the two main functions of discourse?
Defines how a topic can be discussed (what is acceptable).\
Influences how ideas turn into actions (how norms regulate behavior).
What does Foucault say about excluded knowledge?
Discourse not only constructs knowledge but also excludes alternative ways of thinking, limiting what is socially accepted.
What does Butler mean when she says gender is “what you do, not what you are”?
Gender is a set of performed behaviors, not an innate identity.
Why does Butler argue that gender can never be completely deconstructed?
Because social norms and power structures force individuals to repeat gender performances daily.
How does Butler’s theory challenge biological determinism?
It argues that biological sex is itself a social construct, since society assigns meaning to bodily differences.
How does Butler define gender?
Gender is socially constructed and not something that is fixed or biologically determined. It is created through discourse.
What does Butler mean by gender is a performance?
Gender is not something a person is, but something they do—a repeated set of actions, behaviors, and ways of expressing themselves.
What does Butler say about the male/female binary and heterosexuality?
They are social constructs that are enforced by society rather than natural or unchangeable categories.
How does Butler describe gender expression?
Gender is expressed through behaviors and actions, rather than being tied to an internal “gender identity.”
What is gender performativity?
Gender is produced and reinforced through repeated actions over time, rather than being an inherent trait.
The category of woman is not
universal, but historical and contextual
Our gender is our
expressions and behaviors (which is different from claiming that our expressors and behaviors are the result of a certain “gender identity”)
Performativity is not to be understood as the
absolute possibility of impersonating what you want: gender is not a mask that you can take off or put on whenever you want
We can never completely escape
existing power relations and are forced to repeat the same gender performances every day
However, still have some margin of action
what does Judith Butler mean as the margin of action
through parodies and performances that challenge common expectations we can create what she calls “gender troubles”
Ex: drag, cross-dressing, etc
criticisms of judith butler’s theories
It seems that bodies “disappear” and that the differences are mere interpretations
It overemphasizes subjectivity and individual action to the detriment of collective political mobilization
It is difficult to use in empirical studies
Some argue that her theory makes bodies and physical differences seem unimportant, and that it focuses too much on individual identity instead of collective political movements
Why is it difficult to define queer theory?
Queer theory resists fixed definitions and embraces fluidity and contradiction.
How does queer theory relate to identity politics?
It rejects fixed identity categories, arguing that sexuality and gender are fluid and socially constructed.
What does it mean to “queer” something?
To challenge and resist societal norms, especially regarding gender, identity, and sexuality.
How has the meaning of the word “queer” changed over time?
How has the meaning of the word “queer” changed over time?
What does Nikki Sullivan argue about queer theory?
Queer theory refuses to be defined and is difficult to pin down because:
There are multiple queer theories.
The word queer has many meanings (polysemous).
Many queer theorists reject defining queer theory altogether.
How has the LGBTQ+ community reclaimed the word “queer”?
Like other marginalized groups reclaiming slurs (e.g., the n-word, lesbian, faggot), queer activists in the 1980s reclaimed “queer” as a neutral and later positive identity.
What is the modern definition of “queer”?
An umbrella term for people who are not heterosexual or cisgender.
A term that resists rigid identity categories and embraces fluidity.
What is the problem with using “queer” as an umbrella term?
It can create a new division between those considered “queer” and those who are not, reinforcing identity-based categories, which queer theory itself challenges.
How does queer theory challenge the idea of fixed identities?
It rejects all fixed identity labels (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual) and instead questions the entire idea of identity categories.
What does it mean to “queer” something?
Queering means resisting regimes of normality—challenging social norms about identity, appearance, behavior, relationships, etc.
How does queer activism differ from queer theories?
Queer activism celebrates diversity and resistance to assimilation.
Queer theories are a theoretical approach that challenges academic and societal assumptions about gender and sexuality.
What do queer activism and queer theories have in common?
Both:
Reject identity politics, which fights for rights based on identity labels.
Emphasize plurality, recognizing that there are many activisms and theories, even if they contradict each other.
How did De Lauretis define the early goals of queer theory?
She sought to:
Reject heterosexuality as the standard.
Explain how sexual subjectivity is shaped by race and gender.
Move beyond a single definition of LGBTQ+ experiences.
Why did De Lauretis later reject the term “queer theory”?
She believed that academic institutions co-opted it, stripping it of its critical and radical potential.
What is the shared foundation of queer theories?
They are rooted in post-structuralist thought and examine power relations in sexuality and gender.
What assumptions do queer theorists challenge?
The belief that heterosexuality is the default or natural form of sexuality.
How do queer theorists view gender identities?
As performative acts, meaning they are constructed through social behavior and cultural norms.
What do essentialist theories argue about reality?
Reality exists independently of individuals, and knowledge is objective but always partial.
How do constructivist theories differ?
They argue that reality is produced by human perception and interaction.
What is the post-structuralist position on gender?
It takes constructivism further by claiming that even the subject (individual identity) is socially constructed.
How has fashion historically reinforced gender norms?
By constructing clothing in a binary, heterosexual, normative framework, enforcing separate dress codes for men and women.
How is fashion used in gender subversion today?
It allows people to challenge gender norms, express non-binary identities, and create “gender trouble”.
