Lecture 2 Flashcards
Theory
A systematic way of organizing and understanding observations
Hypothesis
A proposed relationship between two variables
Variable
anything which can be measured or described along a particular dimension
• Continuous Variable: a variable which can be measured across a continuum
□ How many hours you slept last night
• Categorical Variable: a variable with a fixed meaning or attribute
Whether or not you are a U of M student
Operationalize Definitions
Label and describe the variables of interest
Research Methods
• Develop a theory based on observations • Develop a hypothesis from the theory • Design a research study • Gather the data Analyze the data and report findings
Data Collection Techniques
- Direct Observation
* Questionnaires
* Interviews
* Psychological Tests
* Psychological Recordings
* Examination of Historical Records
Experimental Method
• Systematic Observation
• Explores changes in variables of interest
• Independent Variable is manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable is measured to assess any change in response to the manipulation
Sampling Bias
skewed samples will give results which don’t generalize
Experimental Group
receive the special treatment in the experiment
Control Group
receive all the same treatment except the independent variable to assess its impact
Extraneous Variable
variable other than the Independent Variable which can impact the results: time of day, lighting, procedural variations
Standardization
keeping research procedures constant to assure confidence when comparing results that change is due to the variables of interest
Placebo Effect
expectations can impact subjective experiences
Demand Characteristics
subjects may behave in ways they think are expected of them; subject may respond to subtle or unintentional cues from the experimenter
Social Desirablility
subjects give answers which are “correct” or “appropriate” and not necessarily true
Generalizability
the ability to reasonably apply the result to other similar populations
Response Set
consistency in answers reflective of a patterned response: always answering NO or strongly agree
Experimenter Bias
research expectations may impact the interpretation of results
Single-blind Study
controls for bias by limiting what the subject knows about the experiment
Double-blind Study
controls for subject and experimenter bias with limited knowledge for both the researcher and study participant
• Wording questions in a manner which does not consider developmental abilities can also impact research results
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Design:
□ Permits researchers to draw conclusions about causation
□ Can be replicated
□ May not have real world applicability
□ Not appropriate for all areas of inquiry due to ethical or practical limitations
Descriptive and Correlational Studies
- Looks at patterns of behavior across conditions
* Links variables which show consistent patterns or relationships
Case Studies
§ In- depth study of an individual or small group
§ Provides systematic observations
§ Limited generalizability
§ Susceptible to researcher bias
• John Money’s John/Joan case study
□ Ethical challenges were significant in this case
□ Replication not likely
□ Money’s reported findings led to a change in the standard of care for intersex individuals, failing to consider the limited generalizability of case studies
Survey Method
- Often based on questionnaires and interviews
* Benefit: easier to gain a large sample size that is more representative of the population as a whole
* Limitations: response bias, sample bias, descriptive and not casual
Correlation Studies
• Explores the relationships between two variables using a numerical value
□ Scale of -1 to +1
□ -1 is a strong negative relationship
□ +1 is a strong positive relationship
□ 0 indicates no relationship
□ Correlations do not indicate causations
□ Third-Variable Correlation: the fact that two variables are correlated only because each is casually related to a third variable
Statistical Relationships
• Mean: group scores added and divided by the # of scores
• Median: the score which falls exactly in the middle of the scores
• Mode: the most frequently occurring score
• Standard Deviation: how much individual scores vary (>the sd the less typical the mean
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
□ Allow for investigation where experiments are not possible or ethical
□ Can observe real world phenomenon
□ Can not draw cause and effect conclusions
Ethics in Research
• Informed Consent: awareness of what participation will entail
• Freedom from Coercion: voluntary, limits on “pressure” like payment, consequences
• Protection from Harm: physical or psychological
• Risk-Benefit Analysis: No large risks; IRB reviews
• Deception: Must be justified and alternatives not possible
• Debriefing: If deception is included explanations required and corrective measures if necessary
• Confidentiality: keep private data/identifying information
• Issues Specific to Research with Infants and Children (SRCD)
• Parental consent for minors
• Children old enough grant consent/assent (7+)
• Explain in reasonable language
• All research should be approved by an IRB (Institutional Review Boards), researchers must report findings fairly and accurately, share raw data when appropriate and print retractions if errors found
• Zimbardo and the “Stanford Prison Study”
• Explored the power of situational forces and social roles
• Randomly assigned subjects to the role of prisoner or guard
• Significant criticism of the methods and ethics of this research study
□ Design flaws and biases: demand characteristics, lack of defined hypotheses, no true control of variables
□ Zimbardo’s results have been applied to several real life situations
• Stanley Milgrams’s Obedience to Authority research project
• Obedience: a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands , usually from someone in a position of authority
• Standardization of procedures was carefully controlled
• Additional studies explored the influence of different independent variables:
□ Remoteness of victim, remoteness of experimenter, Yale vs. Bridgeport
• There have been ethical challenges to the Milgram study based on the level of stress subjects experienced
