Lecture 2

Question 1

Theory

Answer 1

A systematic way of organizing and understanding observations

Question 2

Hypothesis

Answer 2

A proposed relationship between two variables

Question 3

Variable

Answer 3

anything which can be measured or described along a particular dimension
• Continuous Variable: a variable which can be measured across a continuum
□ How many hours you slept last night
• Categorical Variable: a variable with a fixed meaning or attribute
Whether or not you are a U of M student

Question 4

Operationalize Definitions

Answer 4

Label and describe the variables of interest

Question 5

Research Methods

Answer 5

• Develop a theory based on observations
			• Develop a hypothesis from the theory
			• Design a research study
			• Gather the data
Analyze the data and report findings

Question 6

Data Collection Techniques

Answer 6

• Direct Observation
  * Questionnaires
  * Interviews
  * Psychological Tests
  * Psychological Recordings
  * Examination of Historical Records

Question 7

Experimental Method

Answer 7

• Systematic Observation
• Explores changes in variables of interest
• Independent Variable is manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable is measured to assess any change in response to the manipulation

Question 8

Sampling Bias

Answer 8

skewed samples will give results which don’t generalize

Question 9

Experimental Group

Answer 9

receive the special treatment in the experiment

Question 10

Control Group

Answer 10

receive all the same treatment except the independent variable to assess its impact

Question 11

Extraneous Variable

Answer 11

variable other than the Independent Variable which can impact the results: time of day, lighting, procedural variations

Question 12

Standardization

Answer 12

keeping research procedures constant to assure confidence when comparing results that change is due to the variables of interest

Question 13

Placebo Effect

Answer 13

expectations can impact subjective experiences

Question 14

Demand Characteristics

Answer 14

subjects may behave in ways they think are expected of them; subject may respond to subtle or unintentional cues from the experimenter

Question 15

Social Desirablility

Answer 15

subjects give answers which are “correct” or “appropriate” and not necessarily true

Question 16

Generalizability

Answer 16

the ability to reasonably apply the result to other similar populations

Question 17

Response Set

Answer 17

consistency in answers reflective of a patterned response: always answering NO or strongly agree

Question 18

Experimenter Bias

Answer 18

research expectations may impact the interpretation of results

Question 19

Single-blind Study

Answer 19

controls for bias by limiting what the subject knows about the experiment

Question 20

Double-blind Study

Answer 20

controls for subject and experimenter bias with limited knowledge for both the researcher and study participant
• Wording questions in a manner which does not consider developmental abilities can also impact research results
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Design:
□ Permits researchers to draw conclusions about causation
□ Can be replicated
□ May not have real world applicability
□ Not appropriate for all areas of inquiry due to ethical or practical limitations

Question 21

Descriptive and Correlational Studies

Answer 21

• Looks at patterns of behavior across conditions

* Links variables which show consistent patterns or relationships

Question 22

Case Studies

Answer 22

§ In- depth study of an individual or small group
§ Provides systematic observations
§ Limited generalizability
§ Susceptible to researcher bias
• John Money’s John/Joan case study
□ Ethical challenges were significant in this case
□ Replication not likely
□ Money’s reported findings led to a change in the standard of care for intersex individuals, failing to consider the limited generalizability of case studies

Question 23

Survey Method

Answer 23

• Often based on questionnaires and interviews
  * Benefit: easier to gain a large sample size that is more representative of the population as a whole
  * Limitations: response bias, sample bias, descriptive and not casual

Question 24

Correlation Studies

Answer 24

• Explores the relationships between two variables using a numerical value
□ Scale of -1 to +1
□ -1 is a strong negative relationship
□ +1 is a strong positive relationship
□ 0 indicates no relationship
□ Correlations do not indicate causations
□ Third-Variable Correlation: the fact that two variables are correlated only because each is casually related to a third variable

Question 25

Statistical Relationships

Answer 25

• Mean: group scores added and divided by the # of scores
• Median: the score which falls exactly in the middle of the scores
• Mode: the most frequently occurring score
• Standard Deviation: how much individual scores vary (>the sd the less typical the mean
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
□ Allow for investigation where experiments are not possible or ethical
□ Can observe real world phenomenon
□ Can not draw cause and effect conclusions

Question 26

Ethics in Research

Answer 26

• Informed Consent: awareness of what participation will entail
• Freedom from Coercion: voluntary, limits on “pressure” like payment, consequences
• Protection from Harm: physical or psychological
• Risk-Benefit Analysis: No large risks; IRB reviews
• Deception: Must be justified and alternatives not possible
• Debriefing: If deception is included explanations required and corrective measures if necessary
• Confidentiality: keep private data/identifying information
• Issues Specific to Research with Infants and Children (SRCD)
• Parental consent for minors
• Children old enough grant consent/assent (7+)
• Explain in reasonable language
• All research should be approved by an IRB (Institutional Review Boards), researchers must report findings fairly and accurately, share raw data when appropriate and print retractions if errors found
• Zimbardo and the “Stanford Prison Study”
• Explored the power of situational forces and social roles
• Randomly assigned subjects to the role of prisoner or guard
• Significant criticism of the methods and ethics of this research study
□ Design flaws and biases: demand characteristics, lack of defined hypotheses, no true control of variables
□ Zimbardo’s results have been applied to several real life situations
• Stanley Milgrams’s Obedience to Authority research project
• Obedience: a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands , usually from someone in a position of authority
• Standardization of procedures was carefully controlled
• Additional studies explored the influence of different independent variables:
□ Remoteness of victim, remoteness of experimenter, Yale vs. Bridgeport
• There have been ethical challenges to the Milgram study based on the level of stress subjects experienced