Lecture 2 & 3 Flashcards
1
Q
True or False
Animals are made up of cells
that do not have cell walls.
A
True
2
Q
Four types of Tissues
A
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
3
Q
Animals are able to respond quickly
to external stimuli as a result of
_________
A
nerve cells, or muscle or contractile tissue
or both.
4
Q
The phylogenetic tree
of animals is based on ________
A
morphological, fossil,
and genetic evidence.
5
Q
This special feature found in sponges distinguishes them from other phyla
A
true tissue
6
Q
closest phyla to chordata
A
echinodermata
7
Q
This phylum is pore-bearing and sessile
A
Porifera (sponges)
8
Q
Canal systems of porifera
A
- ascon
- sycon
- leucon
9
Q
a large opening of the sponge to the outside through which the current of water exits
A
osculum (pl. oscula)
10
Q
allow water to enter the sponge
A
ostium (pl. ostia)
11
Q
Skeletal elements of sponges
A
- calcium carbonate
- silicon
- spongin
12
Q
Phylum known as the stingers
A
Cnidaria
13
Q
what are stinging cells of cnidarians called?
A
cnidocytes
14
Q
2 stages of cnidarian life cycle
A
- polyp
- medusa
15
Q
- triploblastic
- flattened dorsoventrally; acoelomate
- exhibit cephalization: anterior & posterior
- both free living and parasitic
- incomplete digestive tract: mouth = anus
A
platyhelminthes
16
Q
an evolutionary trend in which, over many generations, the mouth, sense organs, and nerve ganglia become concentrated at the front end of an animal, producing a head region.
A
cephalization
17
Q
- unsegmented
- triploblastic
- grossly polyphyletic
(8 phyla) - complete GI tract
- fluid-filled pseudocoel
- longitudinal muscles only
produce a whipping motion
A
Phylum Nematoda
17
Q
- With true coelom
- Specialized systems
- Metamerism: true segmentation
- Complete GI tract
- Cosmopolitan
- Examples: earthworm,
tubeworms, leech
A
Phylum Annelida
18
Q
found all over the world
A
cosmopolitan
19
Q
- Soft body with internal or external shell
*Mostly marine (snails are terrestrial) - Examples: slugs, clams, squids, octopus
A
Phylum Mollusca
20
Q
the repetition of homologous body segments; true segmentation
A
metamerism
21
Q
- Jointed appendages
- Segmented body
- Exoskeleton (skeleton on
outside) - Mandibles – chewing
mouthparts - Metamorphosis ( egg -
larva - adult) - Example: spiders,
crustaceans, centipedes,
A
Phylum Arthropoda
22
Q
- Jointed appendages
- Segmented body
- Exoskeleton (skeleton on
outside) - Mandibles – chewing
mouthparts - Metamorphosis ( egg -
larva - adult) - Example: spiders,
crustaceans, centipedes,
A
Phylum Arthropoda
23
Q
Adult with radial
symmetry
* Water vascular system
* Internal skeleton:
calcium carbonate
* Capable of
regeneration
* Examples: sea stars,
brittle stars, sea
cucumbers
A
Phylum Echinodermata
24
contains all animals that have a dorsal notochord at some stage of development; in most cases, this is the backbone
Phylum Chordata
25
Four structural characteristics
set chordates apart from all
other phyla:
* a notochord
* a pharyngeal gill slits
* postanal tail
* a hollow dorsal nerve cord
26
He examined a thin slice of cork tissue and observed honeycombed compartments he called cellulae (L, small room) which were later termed as cells
Robert Hooke
27
Proposed the first two statements of the
cell theory in 1838-39
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
28
In its modern form, the cell theory includes
three principles:
1. All organisms are composed of one or
more cells
2. Cells are the smallest living things
3. Cells arise only by division of a
previously existing cell
29
components of a plant cell that are not present in animals
* Cell wall
* chloroplasts,
* large central vacuole
30
components of an animal cell that are absent in plants
– Lysosomes
– Centrioles
– Flagella (though present in some plant
sperm)
31
* the command center of the cell; directs all of its activities
* stores the cell’s hereditary information
nucleus
32
The nucleus is surrounded by ______
a double membrane (nuclear
envelope) with pores
33
Site of assembly of ribosome subunits
nucleolus
33
Site of assembly of ribosome subunits
nucleolus
34
Passage for RNA and proteins
nuclear pore
35
An extensive system of interior membranes that divides the cell into compartments
The Endomembrane System
36
The endomembrane system is composed of:
* Endoplasmic reticulum
* Golgi complex
* Lysosomes
* Peroxisomes
37
Internal membrane system creating channels
and membrane-bound vesicles
Endoplasmic reticulum
38
Two distinct regions of the endoplasmic reticulum
* rough ER
* smooth ER
39
* Studded with ribosomes
* Involved in protein synthesis
rough endoplasmic reticulum
40
* Embedded with enzymes
* Involved in lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
41
The ER transports the molecules it synthesizes to the ______
Golgi complex
42
These are flattened stack of membranes that are scattered throughout the cytoplasm; are collectively referred to as the Golgi complex
Golgi bodies
43
It collects, packages, modifes and
distributes molecules
Golgi complex
44
a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell; discharge of material from vesicles at the cell
surface
exocytosis
45
It export materials out of the cells
secretory vesicles
46
It imports material from one part of the cell to another
transport vesicles
47
Arise from the Golgi complex
* They contain enzymes that break down
macromolecules
* Function in intracellular digestion of
– Worn-out cellular components
– Substances taken into cells
– The resulting material is then recycled
Lysosomes
48
where are lysosomes formed?
golgi apparatus
49
Arise from the ER; contain two sets of enzymes (one in animals and one in plants)
peroxisomes
50
The function of the set of peroxisomes found in plants
converts fats into sugars
51
The function of the set of peroxiseomes found in animals
Detoxifies various harmful molecules
52
Two cell-like organelles contain DNA:
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
53
organelle containg DNA that is only found in plants and algae
chroloplast
54
mitochondria extracts energy from organic molecules through ______
oxidative metabolism
55
Sausage-shaped organelles, about the size of a bacterial cell; found in almost all eukaryotes
mitochondria
56
common characteristics of bacteria and mitochondria
1. Possess circular DNA
2. Divide by simple fission
57
part of the mitochondria that increases surface area nhance the productivity of cellular respiration.
crista/cristae
58
site of organellar DNA replication, transcription, protein biosynthesis and numerous enzymatic reactions; contains the mDNA
matrix
59
Proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts arose by symbiosis from ancient bacteria
The Endosymbiotic Theory
60
A dense network of protein fibers that
– 1. Supports the shape of the cell
– 2. Anchors organelles
cytoskeleton
61
functions of cytoskeleton
1. Supports the shape of the cell
2. Anchors organelles
62
Three different kinds of protein fibers
– Microfilaments
– Microtubules
– Intermediate filaments
63
these make up microfilaments
actin filament
64
these are made up of tubulin
microtubules
65
Anchor and assemble microtubules
May have originated as symbiotic bacteria
Not found in higher plants and fungi
centrioles
66
Essentially, all cell motion is tied to the
movement of _________ and _________
microfilaments, microtubules
67
Effects of changes in the shape of microfilaments
– Enable some cells to change shape quickly
–Allow some cells to crawl
–Cause animal cells to divide
68
* Consist of a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
* Anchored in the cell by a basal body
flagella, cilia
69
flagella vs cilia
flagella: long and few in number
cilia: short and numerous
70
flagella and cilia consist of a ________ of microtubules
9 + 2 arrangement
71
Motor protein that moves vesicles to the cell’s periphery
Kinesin
72
Motor protein that moves vesicles to the cell’s interior
dynein
73
In plants, it stores dissolved substances and can increase the cell’s surface area
vacuoles
74
are used to pump excess water in protists
contractile vacuoles
75
A mixture of glycoproteins secreted by animal cells; helps coordinate the
behavior of all cells in a tissue
Extracellular Matrix
76
Links the extracellular matrix (ECM) to the cystoskeleton
integrin
77
It encases all living cells; Its basic structure is represented by the fluid-mosaic model. consists of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
cell membrane
78
two main types of proteins within the cell membrane
cell-surface proteins
transmembrane/transport proteins
79
* Project from the surface of the membrane
* Act as markers or receptors
cell-surface proteins
80
* Extend all the way across the bilayer
* Provide channels in and out of the cell
–Transmembrane (aka transport) proteins
81
Some things can pass through on their own by
simple diffusion (small, uncharged particles)
Semipermeable Cell
Membrane:
82
the movement of molecules down their
concentration gradient (crowded to less crowded)
diffusion
83
Diffusion of water through a semi-permeable
membrane
osmosis
84
substances dissolved in a solution
solutes
85
solution that contains higher
concentration of solutes than the cell
hypertonic solution
86
solution that contains lower concentration
of solutes than the cell
hypotonic solution
87
solution contains equal concentration of
solutes as the cell
isotonic solution
88
Movement of water into a cell creates
-can cause a cell to swell and burst
osmotic pressure
89
it happens when sugar molecules become evenly distributed throughout the water
equilibrium
90
100% solution is ____ while more than 100% solution is ____
1. saturated
2. supersaturated
91
____ pressure can cause the red blood cells to rapture
hypertonic
92
____ pressure can cause the red blood cells to shrink
hypotonic
93
Large amounts of material can be moved in
and out of cells by _______
membrane-bound vesicles
94
The plasma membrane envelops particles and
brings them into the cell interior
endocytosis
95
Means by which hormones, neurotransmitters and digestive
enzymes are secreted in animal cells
Exocytosis
96
three major forms of endocytosis
1. phagocytosis
2. pinocytosis
3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
97
# endocytosis
Engulfment of
particulate material
Phagocytosis
98
# endocytosis
Engulfment of liquid
material
Pinocytosis
99
# endocytosis
The process is highly specific and very fast
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
100
Cell membranes have ________; they contain protein channels that allow only certain molecules to pass
selective permeability
101
Allows molecules to pass through open channels in
either direction
selective diffusion
102
If the ion fits the pore, it goes through ______
ion channels
103
Net movement of a molecule down its concentration gradient
facilitated by specific carrier proteins
Facilitated Diffusion
104
The movement of molecules across a membrane against a concentration gradient; this is possible by the expenditure of energy
active transport
105
Two types of channels in active transport
1. Sodium-Potassium Pump: nervous system
2. Proton Pump: photosynthesis, respiration
106
Uses the energy of one ATP molecule to pump 3 Na+
outward and 2 K+ into the cell
The Sodium-Potassium Pump
107
Expends metabolic energy to pump
protons across membranes
The Proton Pump
108
The process of pumping protons across the membrane to generate the proton gradient
chemiosmosis
109
eukaryotic cells divide in one of two ways:
mitosis
meiosis
110
Occurs in somatic (non-reproductive) cells
Mitosis
111
* Occurs in germ (reproductive) cells
* Results in the production of gametes
meiosis
112
The complex cell cycle of eukaryotic cell is composed
of several stages:
* interphase
* mitosis
* cytokinesis
113
stages of interphase
G1 phase (Primary growth phase)
S phase (DNA replication)
G2 phase (Microtubule synthesis)
114
the chromosomes are extended are in use during G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase
interphase
115
chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle fiber forms
prophase
116
chromosomes line up on the central plane of the cell
metaphase
117
centromeres divide and chromatids move towards opposite poles
anaphase
118
chrosmomes uncoil, and a new nuclear envelope forms. spindle fibers disappear
telophase
119
the cytoplasm of the cell is cleaved in half
cytokinesis
120
Chromosomes were first observed by the German embryologist ________ in 1882
Walther Flemming
121
# True or False
The number of chromosomes varies enormously from species to species
True
122
Chromosomes exist in somatic cells as pairs also known as ____
Homologous chromosomes or homologues
123
________ have two copies of each chromosomes: one from mother,
one from father.
diploid cells
124
Replicated chromosomes consist of _____
two sister chromatids
125
sister chromatids are held together by ____
centromere
126
an individual's complete set of chromosomes
karyotype
127
The 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes can be organized by _____
size
128
Chromosomes are composed of______
chromatin
129
composition of chromatin
Complex of DNA (~ 40%) and proteins (~ 60%)
130
Involves the alternation of meiosis and fertilization
Sexual reproduction
131
reproduction that does not involve fertilization
asexual reproduction
132
# true or false
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, and two DNA replications
false
## Footnote
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, but only one
DNA replication
133
type of meiosis where homologous pairs are separated
Meisosis I
134
type of meiosis where two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are separated
Meiosis II
135
condensed chromosome
pairs with its homologue after being duplicated
synapsis
136
Homologues swap segments
crossing-over
137
# stages of meiosis
Each chromosome becomes attached to
microtubules of newly forming spindle
prophase I
138
# stages of meiosis
synapsis
Prophase I
139
# stages of meiosis
The longest and
most complex stage
of meiosis
Prophase I
140
# stages of meiosis
The longest and
most complex stage
of meiosis
Prophase I
140
# stages of meiosis
The longest and
most complex stage
of meiosis
Prophase I
141
# stage of meiosis
Chromosomes are pushed and pulled into
the middle of cell
Metaphase I
142
# stages of meiosis
Sister chromatids of one homologue orient
toward one pole, and those of other
homologue toward opposite pole
Metaphase I
143
# stages of meiosis
The spindle is now fully formed
Metaphase I
143
# stages of meiosis
The spindle is now fully formed
Metaphase I
144
# stage of meiosis
Homologous chromosomes
segregate from each other
Anaphase I
145
# sateg of meiosis
The sister chromatids of each
chromosome remain attached
Anaphase I
146
# stage of meiosis
The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
Telophase I
147
# stage of meiosis
The cytoplasm divides
Telophase I
148
# stage of meiosis
There are now two haploid cells, but sister
chromatids still attached to each other
Telophase I
149
After meiosis I there is a _____
brief interphase
150
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, but with two main
differences
1. Haploid set of chromosomes (in humans 1n
= 23 chromosomes)
2. Sister chromatids are not identical
151
Sexual reproduction increases genetic
diversity through three key mechanisms
1. Independent assortment
2. Crossing over
3. Random fertilization
152
* Way that homologous chromosomes
line up on metaphase plate is
random.
* 50% chance that a given member of
pair will end up going to a given
daughter.
Independent Assortment
153
# true or false
Way that homologous chromosomes
line up on metaphase plate is
random.
true
154
As a result of random alignment, the
number of possible combinations of
chromosomes in a gamete is:
2n
## Footnote
(n is number of chromosome pairs)
155
DNA exchanges between maternal and paternal chromatid pairs
corssing over
156
formed by the union of two independently-
produced gametes
zygote
157
the raw material that fuels
evolution
genetic diversity
158
There is no chromosome duplication between the two
meiotic divisions
reduction division
159
programmed death of a cell
apoptosis
160
reproductive organs areprsent in the same body
monoecious/hermaphroditism
161
reprodutive organs are in different bodies
dioecious
162
an organism that switches from its inborn sex to the opposite sex
sequential hermaphrodite
163
unique features of meiosis from mitosis
1. synapsis
2. reduction division
164
# true or false
no genetic process generates diversity more
quickly than sexual reproduction
true
165
The 9+2 arrangement is achieved in the ____________
basal body
166
lipids have _____ and _____ regions
polar, nonpolar
167
the polar region of the lipids are
a) hydrophobic b)hydrophilic
b
168
the nonpolar regions of the lipids are ____
hydrophobic
169
adenine and guanine are made up of what type of nitrogenous base?
purine
170
thymine and cytosine/uracil are composed of what nitrogenous base?
pyrimidine
171
nucleotides found in RNA
adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine
172
5 stages of prophase
* leptonema
* zygonema
* pachynema
* diplonema
* diakinesis
173
# identify the stage of prophase
a. synapsis ends
b. prophase begins
c. crossing over occurs
d. synapsis begins
e. prophase ends
a. diplonema
b. leptonema
c. pachynema
d. zygonema
e. diakinesis
174
he leading evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms
endosymbiotic theory/symbiogensesis
175
released by sponges to withstand extreme environemntal conditions
gemules
176
cell wall is made up of _____
cellulose
177
observed by Robert Hooke from the cork using the microscope
rigid cell wall
