Lecture 19- Infancy to Toddlerhood (0 - 2 years)

Question 1

What are the three growth and development predictable trends?

Answer 1

Cephalo-caudal (head to tail). Brain develops first.
Proximo-distal development.

Growth progresses form gross motor movements (moving arms) to fine motor movement (picking up an object with your fingers).

Symmetrical development of the body. Both sides of the body develop equally

Question 2

What are the four developmental theories?

Answer 2

1) Freud’s (1923) psychosexual theory /psychoanalytic
2) Piaget’s (1969) theory of cognitive development
3) Erikson’s (1963) theory of psychosocial development
4) Bowlby’s theory of attachment

Question 3

What affects growth and development?

Answer 3

Genetics, nutrition, love and affection, and illnesses influence.

Question 4

What does Freud’s (1923) psycho-sexual theory /psychoanalytic suggest?

Answer 4

Theory emphasises the effect of instinctual human drives on behaviour.

Everyone at every age has sexual desires.

Freud identified sexuality as the underlying stimulus for human behaviour (he called this libido). Libido is defined as general pleasure-seeking instincts rather than purely genital gratification.

Freud described a series of developmental stages through which all people must pass.

Question 5

What are the stages of Freuds theory?

Answer 5

Oral stage (ages 0 to 18 months)
Anal stage (ages 8 months to 4 years)
Phallic stage (ages 3 to 7 years)
Latency stage (ages 7 to 12 years)
Genital stage (ages 12 to 20 years).

Question 6

What is Piaget’s (1969) theory of cognitive development?

Answer 6

Children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.

Intellectual growth is a continual restructuring of knowledge to progress to higher levels of thinking and problem-solving. Piaget described four stages

Question 7

What are the four stages of Piaget’s theory?

Answer 7

Sensorimotor stage (birth to 24 months)
Pre-operational stage (ages 2 to 7 years)
Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11 years)
Formal operational stage (age 11 years or older)

Question 8

What is Erikson’s (1963) theory of psychosocial development?

Answer 8

Was based on Freud’s work but was expanded to include cultural and social influences in addition to biological processes.

Erikson saw development as a continuous process, made up of distinct stages. At each stage a developmental goal (or ‘crisis’) must be mastered.

people advance through the stages of development based on how they adjust to social crises throughout their lives.

Question 9

What are the stages of Eriksons theory

Answer 9

1. Trust versus mistrust (infancy)
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddler)
3. Initiative versus guilt (preschool)
4. Industry versus inferiority (school-aged children)
5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
6. Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Ego Integrity versus despair (later adulthood).

Question 10

What does Bowlby’s theory of attachment suggest?

Answer 10

Proposed that infants are prewired to display attachment behaviour towards one or more of their caregivers (usually their parents).

Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life.

Observed that within the first months of an infant’s life their attachment behaviour gradually begins to emerge.

Question 11

What are the stages of Bowlby’s theory?

Answer 11

Secure attachment
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
Disorganised attachment

Question 12

What is Freud’s oral stage?

Answer 12

• Birth to 1 year
• Erogenous Zone: Mouth
• Sucking and biting aren’t only pushed by learning how to eat and for survival, but however pushed also by sexual pleasure. Ego starts to develop

Question 13

What is Freuds anal stage?

Answer 13

• One year to three years old.
• Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
• Baby is learning how to use its anus. The main source of pleasure.
• The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs.

Question 14

Whats Freuds phallic stage?

Answer 14

• Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
• Erogenous Zone: Genitals
• Develop a love for the opposite-sex parent.
• Girls and boys go through their own “complex”
• Superego is developing

Question 15

Whats Oedipus complex?

Answer 15

Boys want to marry their mums and get rid of dad. They are scared of their dads finding out and castrating them. They act like their dads.

Question 16

Whats electra complex?

Answer 16

Girls go through the Electra complex- Girls develop penis envy. Changes penis envy to wanting a child. Believe their mothers castrated them. Acts like mum.

Question 17

Whats Freud’s latency stage?

Answer 17

• Age Range: 6 to Puberty
• Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
• After the superego has been developed. All sexual drives gets repressed. Children interested in school, and hobbies with same-sex friends.
• Sexual development is in a stagnation period.

Question 18

Whats Freud’s genital stage?

Answer 18

• Age Range: Puberty to Death
• Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
• Experimentations of sexual desires.
• Sexual desire is released through sex.

Question 19

What is the Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

Answer 19

Birth to 2 years.

At the beginning of this stage, infants are refined to innate reflexes like sucking and grasping.

Will then turn to primary circular reactions and secondary circular reactions.

at about 8 months of age, children show the first signs of planned intentional behaviour.

Infants learn to coordinate sensory information and motor activity being able to act purposefully and solve problems.

Question 20

What is the reflexes stage and what age is this experience?

Answer 20

The reflex substage typically occurs at the start of a baby’s life when actions happen in response to sensory stimuli

1-4 months

enjoyment of random behaviours – e.g. smiling

Question 21

What are Primary circular reactions and what age is this experienced?

Answer 21

During this stage, children will discover pleasurable actions around their bodies
4 months of age

Question 22

What are secondary circular reactions and what age is this experienced?

Answer 22

Discovering pleasurable actions outside one’s body. Not based on reflexes but represent the first acquired adaptions of new behaviours.
4-8 months of age

Question 23

What are coordination of reactions and what age are they experienced?

Answer 23

This is when children begin to act with more intent and will also be observing other people’s actions more closely.

Link items with properties- they will know that a noisy toy will make a specific sound when they hit certain buttons.

Understands simple commands

8-12 months experienced

Question 24

What are tertiary circular reactions and what age are they experienced?

Answer 24

Occur between 12 and 18 months.

Actively experiment with the world. Does things just to see what happens.

Period of ‘trial and error’ when children will carry out certain actions to observe the reactions of others or the environment.

Question 25

What are early representational thoughts and when do they occur?

Answer 25

18-24 months

Early representational thoughts- Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. Develops reasoning and can anticipate events.

Question 26

What are the main stages in the sensory-motor stage? (6)

Answer 26

Reflexes

Primary circular reactions

Secondary circular reactions.

Coordination of reactions.

Tertiary circular reactions.

Early representational thought.

Question 27

What is the first Growth and development principle?

Answer 27

1. Growth and development is systematic, chronological, continuous and multi-faceted.

• sitting with support
• standing with assistance
• hands and knees crawling
• walking with assistance
• standing alone
• walking alone

Question 28

What is the second growth and development principle?

Answer 28

2. Growth and development follows predictable trends

• Cephalocaudal
• Proximo distal
• Symmetrical

Question 29

What is the third growth and development principles?

Answer 29

3. Growth and development are both differentiated and integrated

As nerve pathways develop, they become more specialised, allowing the growing child to respond to different stimuli. Throughout the lifespan, each new learned ability builds on previously learned abilities, so that increasingly complex tasks can be accomplished

Question 30

What is the fourth growth and development principle?

Answer 30

4. Different aspects of growth and development occur at different stages and at different rates, and can be modified

Growth and development occurs at different stages and rates, and can be modified and influenced by a range of factors – e.g. nutrition, sleep, illnesses, love and affection.

Question 31

What is the fifth growth and development principle?

Answer 31

5. The pace of growth and development is specific for each person

Both physical and psychological skills and maturation vary among people, racial variations occur, and there are limits due to genetic heredity

Question 32

What is Erikson’s eight stages?

Answer 32

Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust (infancy- first year)
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (toddler, 18 months onwards)
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (preschool)
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (school-aged children)
Stage 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion (adolescence)
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation (young adulthood)
Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation (middle adulthood)
Stage 8: Ego Integrity Versus Despair (later adulthood)

Question 33

What does Erikson’s stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust stage suggest and what age does this occur in?

Answer 33

infancy- first year

Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet basic needs and develops trust.

Application – how can a nurse use this knowledge? The infant will develop a sense of trust only if the parent/caregiver/nurse is responsive and consistent with the need for care and food with comforting regularity.

Question 33

What elements cause trust in stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

Answer 33

The infant’s need for care, familiarity, comfort and nourishment are met. Consistency and responsiveness is essential for the sense of trust to develop.

Question 34

What does Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt suggest and what age does this occur in?

Answer 34

toddler, 18 months onwards

Learn and gain independence through encouragement to dress, feed and toilet themselves. This is the “me do it” stage. Important event – toilet training

Question 34

What elements cause mistrust in stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

Answer 34

Babies who are not securely attached to their carers are less cooperative and more aggressive in their interactions with their carers.

As they grow older, they may become less competent and sympathetic with peers.

They may also explore their environment with less enthusiasm and persistence.

Question 34

What elements cause autonomy in Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

Answer 34

The child’s energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well.

Question 35

What elements cause shame and doubt in Erikson’s Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

Answer 35

If caregivers/nurses are overprotective or have expectations that are too high, shame and doubt and feelings of inadequacy may develop.

Question 36

Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Infants with a secure attachment pattern…

Answer 36

Welcome their carers return after separation and are readily comforted by them.

Question 37

Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Infants with an Avoidant attachment pattern…

Answer 37

Indicate no distress on separation and ignore their carers on their return.

Question 38

Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Infants with an Ambivalent attachment pattern…

Answer 38

Are angry and rejecting prior to separation and clearly indicate the need to be close to their carers. These children become very distressed when a parent leaves

As a result of poor parental availability, these children cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be there when they need them.

Question 39

Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Infants with a Disorganised attachment pattern…

Answer 39

This style develops in children whose caregivers were a source of perceived fear, instead of safety and connection

Indicate a large degree of insecurity and display confused and contrary behaviours such as unresponsiveness, disorientation, rocking, and frozen facial expressions. This disorganised behaviour is often difficult to understand during both the absence and return of their carers