Lecture 17 - Longterm Memory II

Question 1

What are the factors that affect how we successfully transfer information from short-term/working memory to more “permanent” long-term memory?

Answer 1

• How we encode in STM/WM determines what information is
passed on to long-term memory.

• Encoding can be influenced by five main factors: 
rehearsal time, 
levels of processing, 
memory for meaning, organization,
and elaboration.

Question 2

Once you have encoded information, it is only useful if

Answer 2

you can retrieve it later.

Question 3

People may use a retrieval plan to

Answer 3

organize the manner in
which they recall information.

trying to match the context at the time of retrieval with the context at the time of encoding

the original format is used to try and retrieve the info

Question 4

In general, you want the retrieval context to match the

Answer 4

encoding context for maximal efficiency (e.g. the cue should

match the elaboration.)

Question 5

the cue should match

Answer 5

the elaboration

Question 6

Thomson & Tulving (1970)

encoding specificity effect.

how important is matching that context at retrieval and encoding?

Answer 6

examined how encoding specificity could overcome pre-existing associations. [Different from example in book.]

• Phase I presented word pairs that were either weakly or strongly existing associations. The first word is a cue, the second is the target.

e.g. =
Weak: ground-COLD,
grasp-BABY

Strong: sky-BLUE,
long-SHORT

• Phase II presented a pair of words and asked if the UPPER CASE word
was previously shown (recognition task). However, they varied the cues
to be either weak or strong.

Weak cue: ground-COLD, pretty-BLUE

Strong cue: long-SHORT, infant-BABY

Question 7

Which would be better during recognition: strength of pre-existing association or specificity of encoding context (the initial specific encoding cue)?

Answer 7

The amazing find was that a
weak retrieval cue was more
effective than a strong retrieval cue if it matched the
exact cue used when
studying.

• You encode the target word with that specific cue.

• Stronger cues aren’t as
effective if not present at
encoding.

• The lure (new words that had never been there) was never present in phase I. You should always say “no” during
recognition.

Context overcomes preexisting associations.

Question 8

Context overcomes

Answer 8

preexisting associations.

Question 9

context effects

Answer 9

• you encode the target with specific cues
• are a form of encoding specificity

• The context includes all factors/cues that might be encoded along with the target item.
- it’s your entire environment

• No two environments are identical, but can be similar.

Question 10

Godden & Baddeley (1975)

context effects

SCUBA

Answer 10

• had scuba divers learn a list of words either on land or 20 feet under water.
- (very different contexts!)

• Participants were then tested either on land or under water.
• Recall (subjects being able to produce the word) was almost 50% better when the encoding and testing occurred in the same setting.

Question 11

Retrieval: context effects

How might context effects be useful when studying for an exam?

Answer 11

Study in the room where the exam will be given.

Question 12

state-dependent learning

Answer 12

Your internal state is part of the encoding context. (the context that is internal)

In general, it is found
that retrieval is best when your current internal state matches your internal state during encoding.

Question 13

Retrieval: state-dependent learning

Eich & Metcalf (1989)

examined the effect of mood on encoding and retrieval.

Answer 13

• Participants listened to happy music and thought pleasant thoughts or listened to sad music and thought depressing thoughts.
• Once the mood was established, they studied a list of words.
• They returned two days later and followed the same mood procedure.
• Results: people who were originally sad were much better if tested in a sad state and went down if they were tested in a happy state (and vice versa)

idea was that just like the external context, if you have those some emotional cues you’ll be better if the internal encoding context matches the retrieval encoding context

Question 14

Retrieval: encoding specificity

Which of the following exam formats would (generally
speaking) take most advantage of encoding specificity?

Answer 14

true/false

would match the closest

Question 15

When you practice new (and old) material, you have a chance to re-encode
the information.

can add cues, depth, elaboration to re-encode

Answer 15

Similar to rehearsal in STM/WM, this practice will improve recall.

Question 16

Retrieval practice

• Roediger & Karpicke (2006)

compared two types of retrieval practice:

re-reading information vs. testing.

advantage in one or the other?

Answer 16

• Participants read a passage and either re-read the passage or took a recall test.
• Both groups then took a recall test after a variable delay period.
• Called the testing effect, it was found that testing improved subsequent recall relative to rereading.

Results: testing was better in the long term

Question 17

testing effect

Answer 17

if you’re studying and you’re practice style is to test yourself: that’s going to have a better retrieval outcome in the long-run

b/c you’re self-generating: adds depth, elaboration

Question 18

The manner in which you ___ and _____ also adds

information to the memory.

Answer 18

practice

encode information

(a way of elaborating)

Question 19

MacLeod et al. (2010)

Production Effect

Answer 19

• presented lists of words to subjects. Half of the words were read silently, while the other were read aloud.

• A recognition test was given after the entire list was presented.
- was this present before or not?

• Results: There was a small, but reliable, advantage for remembering words that had been spoken aloud.

Question 20

According to this production effect,

Answer 20

the words read aloud are more likely to be remembered because the
additional processing makes the words distinctive (compared to those
read silently).

you make something special about the words read out-loud

multi-sensory encoding

key thing that only SOME words were said out-loud NOT all of them

Question 21

Re-encoding after retrieval also allows you to encode a new context.

It is thought that distributed practice…

Answer 21

….can be more efficient

than massed practice.

Question 22

Spacing Effects

In one study, Muller & Pilzecker

Answer 22

• presented two lists of nonsense words to participants. The second list could be presented immediately or 6 minutes after the first.
• They found that the delay group had much better recall for the first list.

Question 23

spacing effect

Answer 23

distributing your practice is more effective because you allow the info to be fully encoded

suggests that distributing practice of items gives more time for the items to be encoded and consolidated in long-term memory

In general, it is found that spacing study time results in better retrieval, especially over longer periods of time. Studying the same material in different contexts may add more retrieval cues and make the memories more resistant to encoding
specificity effects.

Question 24

When we forget, is the item

permanently lost or is it still in memory?

Answer 24

• This is difficult to assess, but it seems that forgetting is really a loss of appropriate retrieval cues.

you lose the ability to get a cue that’s effective in pulling these memories out of LTM

Question 25

In intentional forgetting

experiments,

Answer 25

subjects are given multiple lists to remember. Some lists contain a signal to forget that list

• The ‘forgotten’ items are often not recalled during testing, but may be
recognized in a new list.

• This suggests the memories still exist, but require better retrieval
cues.

Question 26

What would cause us to forget something in long-term memory?

Answer 26

3 different theries:

decay

interference

overwriting

Question 27

decay

Answer 27

According to the early “law of disuse,” memories
that aren’t rehearsed lose strength over time.

• idea of memory being like a memory trace: the memory decays: if you don’t rehearse those memories the neural connection “unwinds” or goes away

if neurons stop firing together the neural connection goes away

Question 28

interference

Answer 28

Perhaps earlier items are more difficult to remember because new material interferes with retrieval?

the cues were the same and now the more recent cue points to a different memory

Question 29

overwriting

Answer 29

maybe new memories can replace older (similar) memories?

based on computer metaphor

you have neural storage and new memories are encoded over older ones

Question 30

The memory decay hypothesis is difficult to support

Answer 30

• Anecdotally, we can remember things from long ago if only give the right
cue (e.g. Who was your best friend in kindergarten? When was the last time you thought about them?)

• If time without rehearsal is the key factor, this should be experimentally demonstrable.

Question 31

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924)

decay testing

Answer 31

− presented lists of items to be remembered.

− Participants then either slept or resumed normal activities.

− It was found that those who had slept could recall more items.

• Therefore, time can’t be the (only) critical factor.

Question 32

Interference effects have been shown to occur in a number contexts.

Answer 32

in retroactive interference

in proactive interference

Question 33

In retroactive interference

Answer 33

there is difficulty in recalling earlier material due to exposure to new material later. (people learned a list, did new different things)

− Learn list A, then List B (or rest).

− Worse memory for items on list A for those who studied List B.

Question 34

In proactive interference

Answer 34

early learning impedes the memory of new material.

− Learn List A (or nothing), then learn List B.

− Worse memory for items on List B if you had first learned List A.

first list interferes with the second list

Question 35

sleep encoding

Answer 35

during sleep you’re not interfering with stuff and then the brain rehearses stuff

encoding is a physiological process