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Microbiology > Lecture 17 - Immunologic Applications > Flashcards

Lecture 17 - Immunologic Applications Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the three categories of immunology applications?

A

immunization, immunological testing, and immune therapies

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2
Q

what is immunization?

A

the process of inducing immunity (vaccines) - trying to induce immunity for a pathogen

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3
Q

what is a vaccine?

A

it activates the immune system by the preparation of pathogens, or their components, to induce immunity.

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4
Q

what parts of the pathogen can vaccines contain?

A

the vaccine contains either the whole or part of a pathogen

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5
Q

what happens within a vaccine? how does it activate the immune system?

A

-There is an activation of humoral (B cells) and cell-mediated (T cells) immunity using steps 1-3 to form effector cells (antibodies and killer T cells) and memory cells.

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6
Q

what do memory cells within a vaccine do?

A

memory cells mount an immediate and intense response upon exposure to the REAL pathogen (vaccines induce memory cells)

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7
Q

what is active immunity?

A

it results from an immune response upon exposure to an antigen. (basically, you are the one doing the work)

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8
Q

what the two subunits of active immunity?

A

a. natural (from an infection)
b. artificial (from a vaccination)

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9
Q

what is passive immunity?

A

it results when antibodies are transferred to an individual. (basically, someone else is doing the work)

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10
Q

what are the subunits of passive immunity?

A

a. natural (maternal antibodies, breastmilk, placenta, IgG).
b. artificial (monoclonal antibodies)

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11
Q

what type of immunity is a vaccine?

A

it is active and artificially acquired

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12
Q

name 4 main hallmarks of vaccine

A
  1. contains either the whole or part of a pathogen.
  2. active immunity - activation of your immune system.
  3. artificial immunity - acquired
  4. induces/creates memory cells (the body is prepared to fight a real exposure)
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13
Q

define herd immunity

A

herd immunity is a phenomenon that occurs when a critical concentration of immune hosts prevents the spread of a pathogen. herd immunity can be caused by natural or artificial.

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14
Q

what causes herd immunity?

A

vaccination

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15
Q

have any diseases been totally eradicated via vaccination?

A

yes, smallpox

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16
Q

what is the history of vaccination against smallpox?

A

-Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids who got cowpox before were protected against smallpox.
-In 1796, he injected cowpox into an 8-year-old and then exposed him to smallpox - no infection was caused.
-Abs made against cowpox clear out smallpox.
-“vaca” = cow, named in Jenner’s honor

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17
Q

what were 3 reasons that smallpox could be eradicated?

A
  1. There were no animal reservoirs, meaning it only infected humans.
  2. Infected people show characteristic symptoms like small bumps and fever. They could be quarantined to stop the spread.
  3. Vaccine were available to induce immunity.
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18
Q

what is primarily responsible for a decline in most diseases?

A

vaccination is; 1 in 3 children under 5 used to die from diseases before vaccines.

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19
Q

what are examples of diseases that were common and really bad before vaccines helped them?

A

-Diptheria
-Measles
-Mumps
-Rubella (German Measles)
-Tetanus
-Polio

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20
Q

what is diphtheria?

A

It is a bacterial disease affecting the respiratory tract and skin. It was near eradication. It can cause a white membrane in the mouth/back of your throat.

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21
Q

what is measles?

A

It is a viral disease with a red rash characteristic. Complications may include pneumonia and encephalitis which can lead to death. It was near eradication.

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22
Q

what is mumps?

A

It is a viral disease attacking glandular tissues like the salivary and testicular glands. It can cause a big mump in your cheek.

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23
Q

what is Rubella (German Measles)?

A

It is a viral disease with characteristic rash. It can lead to miscarriage or birth defects in the babies of infected pregnant women. It was near eradication as well.

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24
Q

what is Tetanus (“lockjaw”)?

A

It is a bacterial disease that causes painful muscle contractions, for example in the jaw, neck, or diaphragm. This causes difficulty opening your mouth, swallowing, or breathing. 1-2 in 10 cases are fatal.

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25
Q

what is polio?

A

-It was eradicated, but coming back now.
-It is a viral disease that may infect the brain and spinal cord leading to paralysis.

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26
Q

what are the two vaccines against polio?

A
  1. Dr. Jonas Salk - made the inactivated vaccine (IPV).
  2. Dr. Albert Sabin - made the attenuated (weakened pathogen) vaccine that was oral
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27
Q

what are the two types of vaccines?

A
  1. Whole agent vaccines
  2. Fractions of the agent
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28
Q

what are whole-agent vaccines? what two different types can they contain?

A

Whole agent vaccines contain WHOLE pathogens. It can be:
a. Attenuated (weakened)
or
b. Inactivated

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29
Q

what are fractions of the agent vaccines? what are examples?

A

It contains purified molecules from the pathogen.
Examples are toxoids, protein subunit vaccines, polysaccharide vaccines, DNA vaccines, and mRNA vaccines.

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30
Q

what are the characteristics of an attenuated whole-agent vaccine?

A

It is:
-Live
-Avirulent pathogen (doesn’t cause disease)
-Weakened
-No boosters needed
-Some risks

31
Q

does the attenuated whole-agent vaccine have the same virulence and antigenicity (antigens present)?

A

the attenuated whole-agent vaccines lose virulence, but retain antigenicity (still have Ag’s on the surface)

32
Q

what are the advantages of attenuated vaccines?

A

The pathogen is live so it can replicate and expose our body to large numbers of pathogens for a longer amount of time. An effective immune response is induced so no need for boosters.

33
Q

what are the disadvantages of attenuated vaccines?

A

-It can cause a mild version of the disease, so it is not okay for immunocompromised people like pregnant women.
-Rarely can it back mutate to the original virulent form causing the full-blown disease.

34
Q

what are examples of attenuated whole-agent vaccines?

A

-Measles, Mumps, Rubella (German Measles): MMR
-Varicella (chickenpox)
-Herpes zoster (Shingles)
-Influenza (nasal mist)
-Rotavirus (gastrointestinal disease)

35
Q

what are the characteristics of inactivated whole-agent vaccines?

A

-Dead pathogen
-pathogen still has antigens, so it can make an active immune response
-need boosters
-no risks

36
Q

can inactivated whole-agent vaccines replicate in our own body?

A

No, they are dead so they cannot replicate in our bodies. There is a low magnitude of immune response induced so you need boosters.

37
Q

is there a risk of back mutation with inactivated whole-agent vaccines?

A

no risk

38
Q

what are examples of inactivated whole-agent vaccines?

A

-Polio (inactivated Salk): IPV
-Hepatitis A
-Influenza (injection)

39
Q

what are toxoids vaccines? examples?

A

They are fractions of the agent and are inactivated toxins. Examples are tetanus and diphtheria

40
Q

what are protein subunit vaccines? examples?

A

They are fractions of the agent and include recombinant.
Examples are:
-Pertussis (acellular): whooping cough, part of DTaP or Tdap.
-Hepatitis B
-Human papilloma virus: HPV

41
Q

what are polysaccharide vaccines?

A

they are fractions of the agent. examples are:
-Pneumococcal pneumonia
-Meningococcal disease
-Haemophilus influenza type b meningitis - Hib

42
Q

what are DNA vaccines?

A

they are fractions of the agent and are experimental

43
Q

what are mRNA vaccines?

A

they are fractions of the agent and an example is COVID-19

44
Q

what is important about childhood immunization?

A

-It stimulates developing immune responses (check schedules)
-Vaccine information statements (VIS)
-Complacency and fear of side effects can lead to outbreaks, like polio and measles.

45
Q

what can be included for adult vaccines?

A

-periodic boosters for some vaccines (see schedules): flu shot, Tdap, Hep B, Shingles, pneumococcal pneumonia, etc.
-can be job specific: healthcare professionals need HepB, MMR, and chickenpox. Military need anthrax. Vets need rabies.
-Travel: typhoid, rabies, yellow fever

46
Q

which of the following is NOT true about the MMR vaccine:
1. It may cause a mild form of the illness
2. It is given as a series of several boosters
3. It is alive and can potentially back mutate
4. It should not be given to pregnant women

A
  1. It is given as a series of several boosters
47
Q

what is immunological testing used for?

A

for a diagnosis of an unknown

48
Q

what principles do immunological testing use?

A

Uses principles of adaptive immune system as it is very specific to Ags - ex: every Ab binds to one particular Ag only

49
Q

what are immunoassays and what do they test for?

A

Immunoassays are various ways to perform immunological testing.
Immunoassays either:
-Look for a specific Ag
or
-Look for specific Abs

50
Q

how do immunoassays look for a specific Ag?

A

-By mixing a sample from an infected pt with the Ab from the known disease.
-So you have an unknown Ag and known Ab.
-If they are a match, a reaction will happen.

51
Q

how do immunoassays look for specific Abs?

A

-By taking blood from the pt and mixing it with the known Ag with the actual pathogen.
-So you have unknown Abs and a known Ag
-If they are a match, a reaction will happen.

52
Q

can you do an immunoassay for an Ag or an Ab?

A

yes, it just depends on the diagnosis and the type of pathogen it is. The tests vary based on how you visualize Ag-Ab reaction

53
Q

Whenever we are detecting Ags, it is a _____(direct/indirect)_____ immunoassay.

A

direct

54
Q

Whenever we are detecting Abs, it is a _____(direct/indirect)_____ immunoassay.

A

indirect

55
Q

what are the three reactions that can occur if the immunoassay is a match?

A
  1. Agglutination
  2. FA test
  3. ELISA
56
Q

what happens during agglutination reactions?

A

-Abs bind large insoluble Ags and form visible clumps

57
Q

what are two types of agglutination? which is preferred?

A

Direct and Passive are the two types.
Passive is preferred.

58
Q

what is the fluorescence antibody (FA) test?

A

-Using Abs tagged with fluorescent molecules
-If it is a match, then Abs attach and you can see a glow under a fluorescence microscope

59
Q

what is ELISA?

A

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay:
-We use Abs tagged with an enzyme that catalyzes a color change reaction
-If there is a match, Abs attach and you see a color after the addition of a substrate
-So we tag the Ab with an enzyme instead

60
Q

what are primary and secondary Abs?

A

-Primary Ab: against the Ag you are testing
-Secondary Ab: specific to the Fc region of the human IgG

61
Q

what are immune therapies?

A

using principles of immune system to treat diseases

62
Q

how can immunotherapies be used for allergies and cancer?

A

-Allergy shots: Type 1 hypersensitivity, small doses of an allergen stimulates IgG production and lead to the neutralization of the Ag.
-Recombinant killer T cells: give them receptors that specifically and efficiently bind and kill cancer cells.

63
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies?

A

They are antibodies that recognize a single epitope (as opposed to clonal polyclonal antibodies, which are a mixture of antibodies that recognize different epitopes of an antigen).
It can be used to treat very specific parts of an Ag.

64
Q

compare monoclonal and polyclonal antisera

A

-Monoclonal antisera: single epitope recognized, very specific to one part of an Ag.
-Polyclonal antisera: multiple epitopes recognized (many Abs bind to the same Ag)

65
Q

what antigens do monoclonal antibodies attack? what are they used in?

A

They attack very specific Ags and are used in cancer and immunologic disorders

66
Q

what are examples of monoclonal antibodies

A

-Herceptin (trastuzumab): for breast cancer
-Humira (adalimumab): for rheumatoid arthritis
-Xoilar (omalizumab): for persistent asthma

67
Q

A “direct” immunoassay looks for what?

A

Ag

68
Q

Herd immunity:
1. Only happens in a population in which all individuals are immune
2. Only provides protection to those who are already immune
3. Is responsible for dramatic increases in childhood diseases
4. Occurs in a population in which a large percentage of people are immune
5. Occurs when children are exposed to herd animals

A
  1. Occurs in a population in which a large percentage of people are immune
69
Q

In which category of vaccines does the modified live measles virus vaccine belong?

A

Attenuated whole agent vaccine

70
Q

To view Treponema pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis, under the microscope, you can tag the specimen with an antibody-fluorescein dye complex and look under a microscope that projects UV light onto the specimen. What test are you using?

A

Fluorescence antibody (FA) test

71
Q

Which of the following immunodiagnostic tests uses antibodies or antigens attached to latex beads?
1. Fluorescence antibody (FA) test
2. Direct ELISA test
3. Passive agglutination test
4. Indirect ELISA test
5. Direct agglutination test

A
  1. Passive agglutination test
72
Q

In a direct ELISA test, what are you measuring for in the patient?

A

Antigens

73
Q

A person has antibodies against hepatitis B virus. Identify the different ways in which these antibodies could have been acquired.

A

Hepatitis B antibodies could have been acquired in several different ways:
The person may have an active virus infection
The person may have a small but steady amount of antibodies, indicating past infection
The person may have been vaccinated against hepatitis B
The person may be a newborn receiving pre-made antibodies from its mother

Microbiology (53 decks)

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