Lecture 10: personality development and change

Question 1

delayed gratification (Mischel)

1. describe experiment
2. what did it predict
3. results
   a) 10 years later
   b) 30 years later

Answer 1

1. wait to eat marshmallow
   MRT = 8 minute wait
2. self control / self regulate
   3a. adolescence = higher SAT scores and coping skills, lower aggression
   b. adulthood = educational achievement, lower drug use, better health

Question 2

3 types of stability

+ describe each

Answer 2

1. rank order

relative position to population = peoples rank ordering stays the same

2. mean level

e.g score on personality trait
mean level changes, population as a whole decreases but rank order maintained

3. individual

rank order maintained, but some people are decreasing and others are increasing on trait level

Question 3

evidence for rank order stability

what did coata and mccrae show?

• correlations (up to 30 year periods)

Answer 3

test-retest correlations = personality test scores correlated

.65 for big 5

trait level at age 30 highly correlated with age 60

= if one is above average on a trait at 30, probability of this being true at 50 is 83% (5:1 odds)

Question 4

evidence for rank order stability

what did damian show?

• across 50 years periods
• compare to mccrae

Answer 4

test-retest correlation = .30 for big 5 across 5 decades

=smaller rank order stability shown relative to mccrae
= across a longer period
= still a discernible relation between trait at age 16 to 66

Question 5

evidence for rank order stability

what did roberts and del vecchio show? = a review of stability finding (4)

Answer 5

test-retest correlations indicating rank order stability are
1. relatively high

2. increase with age
   .41 = childhood
   .55 = 30
   .70 = 50-70
3. decrease as the test-retest interval increases
   .55 over 1 year period
   .25 over 40 year period
4. trait general, don’t vary across:
   - big 5
   - assessment method (self-reports, observer ratings)
   - gender

Question 6

what 3 things influence stability (why do we have stability)?

Answer 6

1. genetic influences
   = probabilistic influences of genes on behaviour
2. environmental channeling
   = “settling down” -> increases stability in the environment
   e.g. friends, routine
3. environmental selection
   = we actively seek environments that match, support and maintain our traits

Question 7

influences on stability: genetics vs environment

what do longitudinal twin studies show?

genetic

environmental

Answer 7

estimate the influence of genetic vs environment

79 MZ twins (identical) & 48 DZ twins

• 70-90% of stability owing to genetics
• 70% of change owing to environment

(stability was operationalised by the rank order correlation)

Question 8

study showing how the environment contributes to stability (johnson)

Answer 8

833 twins followed for over 11 years

genetic effect on stability = .95

environmental = .50

Question 9

influences on stability: environmental channelling

what did caspi and herbener show (married couples)?

• > give example of when a low rank order stability score would happen
• > high rank order example

Answer 9

126 married couples given personality assessments

rank order stability higher for couples with more similar personalities

still moderately high for less similar spouse pairs

• > husband = high extraversion, wife = high introversion
• > husband = high extraversion, wife = high extraversion (or low introversion)

Question 10

influences on stability: environmental selection
what are the following/ evidence why influences stability:

1. assortive mating
   = why possibly under-estimated?
2. migration
3. vocational choice

Answer 10

1. trait correlations between partners and friends = r.35

= might be UNDER estimated due to reference group effect

2. people prefer to live among people with similar personalities, values, interests
3. careers that fit their personality

Question 11

evidence for mean level personality change

what do costa and mccrae say?

Answer 11

O, E & N = drop over adult years

A and C = rise

= tendency for people to become nicer, more responsible and more set in their ways

= less outgoing and more stable

Question 12

evidence for mean level personality change

meta-analysis by roberts (2006)

what does it say about
OCEAN?

Answer 12

O = increases till 20y then stays stable

C = low until mid 20s, then increases

E 1. social vitality = increases slowly until 20 then drops off massively
2. social dominance = large curvature increase

A = =low until mid 20s, steady increase

N = small increase till mid 20 then large increase

Question 13

evidence for mean level personality change

robins and mroczek (2009)
what traits rise & which fall

why?

Answer 13

university students

A and C rise
O and N fall

negative affect drops and positive affect rises through adulthood

psychosocial maturity

Question 14

what influences mean level change? (2)

Answer 14

1. genetic
   -> evolved maturation : becoming independent (vocation/parental responsibility)
   -> better equip us for these developmental tasks
   = E and O more useful around reproductive age
   = C more helpful during parenting
2. environmental effects
   - > role shifts and life transitions
   - > historical events

Question 15

sources of mean-level change

1. loehlin study (twins)
2. hopwood study (twins)

= how do they compare?

Answer 15

1. personality change scores correlated
   .50 for MZ (100% genes shared)
   .18 for DZ
   = in line with the idea that genetic switches are partially due to systematic patterns of change
2. 624 twins assesed 3x over 12 years

for C:

• genetic effect >environmental
• for N: only a significant environmental effect
• minimal change for other traits

Question 16

sources of mean-level change

1. cross-cultural comparisons
2. mccrae: cross-culture findings
   = main trend
   = BUT why is this flawed?

Answer 16

1. if environments drive mean-level change patterns should differ in markedly different environments
2. examined age-personality relations between germany, italy, croatia, south korea

= more contentious across life span (all)
= N inconsistent - decreased only in germany and south korea
= E, A, O, C similar to US sample

= suggestive of universal maturation

= BUT: this is flawed, they didn’t compare how the same people changed over time but between different ages
= BUT: all developed countries, are the environments really that different?

Question 17

Sources of mean-level change

what did king, weiss and sisco observe in chimpanzees?

= what does it suggest?

Answer 17

O, E, N = drop over lifespan
A = rises
C = rose (not significantly)

similar pattern to humans
= cross-species universal maturation

Question 18

Sources of mean-level change

major life transitions: transition to work, what was Roberts experiment?

= results?

Answer 18

100 women followed for 20 years from 50s-80s

role of women changed

agency increased (part of E) 
= potentially contributes towards typical mean level changes

Question 19

Sources/influence of mean-level change

cohort effects seen: historical?
1. Twenge hypothesised..

2. problems
3. trzesniewski and donnellan attempt to confirm generation me

= overall conclusion

Answer 19

1. ‘generation me’
   - > hypothesised inflated self-esteem, egotism and expectations of the future
2. sampling = not representative e.g. representative of college graduates not typical american population

over-estimation of effects = individual (.02) vs aggregated (.81) scores

3. HUGE sample 500,000 high school students (more representative of population)
   = no evidence for inflation
   = moderate increases in aspirations and decreases about social probalems (.20)
   = other trends very small (.10)

= little support for marked cohort effect during this period

Question 20

generational change

Igen cohort hypothesis

Answer 20

people born in mid 90s, early 2000s

hypothesised higher levels of parental supervision heightens vulnerabilities in adulthood “coddling”

(to explain micro-aggressions, moral panic mentality)

= NOT a scientific study (no evidence for this)

Question 21

generational change

what is the general consensus around cohort effects on personality?

Answer 21

they occur over and over again: every generation expresses concerns about the qualities of the next generation

no robust evidence for cohort effects on personality exists

Question 22

beliefs about personality change

1. what did haslam show ?
2. whats the end of history illusion?
   = implications

Answer 22

1. beliefs about normative mean level personality change through the lifespan are reasonably accurate
   (people provided an estimate about how personality changes across lifespan)

= O & E = decrease
= A, C = increase
= emotional stability (opposite of neuroticism) = increases

= people believed that personality changes less with age (becomes more concrete)

2. people underestimate the extent to which their own personality will change in the future

= tendency to believe that we are complete when we are always works in progress

implications for decision making = marriage, children, tattoos etc

Question 23

beliefs about personality change

what did ouidbach (2013) do? (studies 1-3)
= results

Answer 23

7519 adults

completed personality inventory
2 conditions
1. reporter: complete for yourself 10 years ago
2. predictor: complete for yourself in 10 years time

computed average of absolute difference in all big 5 trait scores to index predicted change and reported

= reported and predicted change in personality values very similar
= more change is remembered than predicted

= more pronounced for value and preferences changes
= can see change but not anticipate it

Question 24

beliefs about personality change

inaccurate predictions or fallible memories?
1. Ouoidbach (study 2)

2. Ouoidbach (study 4) concert past vs future
   - > limitation: why isn’t change accounted for by participants?

Answer 24

1. wanted to rue out fallible memories
   (Q = maybe predictions are correct and changes are overestimated)

-> contrasted remembered and predicted changes to actual changed in personality in a seperate sample
= actual personality change was identical to REPORTER (memories)
= change was larger to PREDICTED (forecasting)

2. 2 conditions:
   past concert = how much would you pay to see favourite musician from 10 years ago this week

future concert = how much would you pay now to see your current favourite in 10 years

= past = $89, future = $129
they believe they will value their current fav in the future (doesn’t account for change)

• > can’t predict this change because there’s lots of uncertainty about future
• > individual change?

Question 25

individual change has important consequences

1. what C predict? changes?
2. mroczek & spiro; takahashi longitudinal study: N changes

Answer 25

1. health, changes in C = predict changes in health
   - > health promoting behaviours
2. N predicts morality

changes in N predict morality =
high and increasing predicts earlier death

Question 26

individual change

1. transitions to work
2. roberts (2003)

Answer 26

1. we have different experiences during work transitions
   - > positive/negative
2. personality predicted positive work experiences
   e. g. promotion/pay increase

positive work experience predicted: increase E, decreased N

mean level E depends on attainment (high attainment = high extraversion)
= individual change but no mean level change

N = individual and mean level change
(decreases steepest for individuals with higher financial security)

Question 27

individual change

does travel broaden the mind? Zimmerman and Nyer (2013)

selection effects

effects of travel

Answer 27

university students who chose to study abroad for
1 semester = higher E and C -> career aspirations?
2 semester = higher E and O -> seeking connection/immersion?

effects of travel = increase O and A, decrease N
= mediated by increases in relationship gains ( got more friends)

Question 28

individual change

do clinical interventions change personality? Meta analysis (Roberts)

Answer 28

• > lasting changes for decreased N & ( lesser extent) increased E
• > kind of therapy doesn’t matter

-> non-linear impact of therapy duration:
<1 m = minimal effects
8m = dose-dependent effect

-> effect greatest for some presenting problems e.g. anxiety, depression rather than substance abuse

Question 29

Anticipating vs responding to life events

do we knowingly or unknowingly change our personalities in anticipation of life events?
> Denissen study
=Q
= Result

Answer 29

• > 9 year study
• > monthly survey
• > examined personality changes after unemployment, marriage, childbirth, divorce etc

Q = event -> change or change in anticipation of event?

R = anticipation e.g. transition to work
= increases C and O prior to employment

Question 30

can we choose to change?

1. Little
2. Fleeson

Answer 30

1.= efforts to seek help (clinical)
= we can pursue personal projects
= acting out of character to effect longer change

2. = traits are long term patterns, states are momentary e.g. more C during exam period

Question 31

can we change our personality states to pursue goals? Fleeson

Answer 31

women entering work
10 day study

E and goal pursuit
= variance in state E was predicted by momentary goals ( to engage in leadership, make a positive impression) more than they usually would

later extension to C
= use time effectively, get things done

= particular goals -> elicits personality state change

Question 32

Volitional personality change?
Hudson and Fraley

• 3 questions asked to students

Answer 32

study 1: 135 students
study 2: 151 “

questions asked

1. do people want to change
2. so people change as desired
3. how do they change
4. yes = 90%
   increase in E, O, A, C and decrease in N
   = psychosocial maturity?
5. yes = both studies
   increase in E, O, A, C and decrease in N

= change .02 sd p/month. change is small, but if it were to persist linearly it would be large (>4SD over 20 years! - probably wouldn’t actually be that large!)

3. counter-dispositional behaviour (fake till you make it)
   > goals -> states -> traits
   -> for E, A and N

personal identity (goals)
> goals -> traits -> states
-> for E, C and N

• > last one seems unusual
• > no conclusion about O

Question 33

rank order stability conclusion

-> evidence (general gist)

Answer 33

moderate-high and increases over lifespan

-> genetic and environmental effects

Question 34

mean level change throughout lifespan conclusion

-> evidence (general gist)

Answer 34

• differs by trait
• changes appear to be psychosocial maturity
• evidence for genetic/universal maturation effects
• also environmental effects (life transitions)

Question 35

individual change conclusion

-> evidence (general gist)

Answer 35

• significant unique events/experiences
• people dont expect to change, but do
• evidence of anticipatory change
• people can volitionally decide to change their personalities