Lecture 1 , Pt 1 - Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology

Question 1

What is Biomedicine?

Answer 1

Anatomy - structures that form the body

Physiology - How the parts of body work

Pathology - Study of abnormalities

Question 2

What are the Characteristics of Life?

Answer 2

Metabolism - sum of all chemical processes

Responsiveness - ability to respond to change in environment

Movement - of whole being of individual cells, organs

Reproduction new cells or new individual

Growth - increase in size of number

Differentiation - Development to specialised state

Vital Force / Life Force . Qi

Question 3

Characteristics of Death?

Answer 3

No breathing
No heartbeat
No brain function
No vital force / Life Force / Qi

Question 4

What is Homeostasis?

Answer 4

Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment regulated by body’s internal regulatory processes

Question 5

Homeostasis Variables - Examples?

Answer 5

Must be between certain narrow parameters to stay in balance:-
Core temperature - 36.5-37.5C
Water and electrolyte concentrations
Blood pressure
Blood glucose levels
Blood and tissue O2 / CO2 levels
pH (acidity or alkilidty) of body fluids
Flow of Life Force

Question 6

Homeostatis Body Fluid Composition / Volume

Answer 6

Body Fluids - Intracellular (inside) or extracellular (outside) eg blood plasma, lymph fluid, interstitial fluid.

Proper functioning of cells relies on interstitial fluid composition.

Question 7

What are the Homeostasis Control Systems?

Answer 7

Disruptors - change the homeostatic parameter
Detectors - Receptors that detect the disruption

Control Centre - Determines limits within which parameters should be maintained and evaluates input and output

Effectors - Structures that receive output

Question 8

What is the Feedback System?

Answer 8

Negative - output reverses the input (most body variables eg body temp, blood pressure etc

Positive - strengthens change in the body’s controlled conditions ie reinforces the body eg breastfeeding, child birth, immunity, blood clotting

Question 9

What is the Body’s Organisation?

Answer 9

Atoms & Molecules - chemical level

Cells - smallest living units in body

Tissues - Groups of cells that work together

Organs - Groups of tissues that work together

Systems - Related organs that have a common function

The Organism - all parts of the body together

Vital Force - The energy that creates life

Question 10

What are the Systems of the Body?

Answer 10

Skeletal
Muscular
Reproductive
Endocrine
Lymphatic
Digestive
Respiratory
Cardiovascular
Urinary
Integumentary (Skin)
Nervous
Immune

Question 11

What are the Body cavities?

Answer 11

Cranium
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic

Diaphragm main muscle of breathing and differentiates thoracic (above) and abdominal (below)

Question 12

Cell Theory

Answer 12

Living things made up of cells and vital force
Cell is structural and functional unit of all living things
Cell comes from pre-existing cells by division
Contain DNA - hereditary info
All energy flow of life occurs in cells

Question 13

Cell Memory

Answer 13

Memory in brain but can be stored in individual body cells such as traumatic experiences, negative beliefs

Question 14

What is Disease?

Answer 14

A disruption of body physiology can cause disease by eg environment, dietary choice, lifestyle choices, drugs etc

Question 15

What is Metal Toxity & Cell Damage?

Answer 15

Aluminium, mercury and lead can build up in the body and cause damage

Aluminium toxicity has been linked to Alzheimers, can cause damage to neurons in brain and is a risk factor for some cancers eg breast cancer

Aluminium - foil, antisperent, kitchen pans etc

Question 16

What is Oxidative Stress re Cells?

Answer 16

Oxidative Damage - damage caused to cell by a molecule containing oxygen - called Free Radicals - unstable - highly reactive. Can cause

Vits ACE are antioxidants plus beta-carotene

Question 17

Define Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells?

Answer 17

Pro contain no nucleus and no membrane binds cell structures. Are smaller . Has a cell wall. Inc bacteria. Cell division - binary fission

Euk - contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Are bigger. Cell wall only in plants / fungi. Cell division involves mitosis

Question 18

Cell Components - Cell Wall..who has and what does?

Answer 18

Human cells - no cell wall only a membrane
Plant and fungal have cell walls
Walls provide strength and rigidity and surround membrane

Question 19

Cell Components - Cell Internally Consists of..?

Answer 19

Cytosol - basic watery fluid
Organelles - small specialised structures within the cell
Cytoplasm - Cell content excluding the nucleus

Question 20

Cell membrane - Structure?

Answer 20

Flexible, semi permeable, separates the cells external and internal environment. Allows mobility and assists in cell processes such as growth, movement and secretion

Is a phospholipid bilayer, lipids being hydrophobic (water hating) and phosphate heads being hydrophilic - water loving

Membrane is embedded with transmembrane proteins

Membrane controls substance movement in and out of cells

Question 21

Transmembrane Proteins perform how?

Answer 21

Transport substances in and out of the cells

Helps immune cells to recognise our own cells so the white blood cells do not attack them ie Autoimmune diseases eg Coeliac’s disease

Recognition site for hormones

Question 22

What is the Phospholipid Layer

Answer 22

Hydrophobic tails face inwards whilst hydrophilic face outwards

Membrane is embedded with transmembrane proteins and other fats such as cholesterol

Question 23

What are Cell Junctions?

Answer 23

Contact / communication points between the adjacent cell membranes of tightly packed cells. These include

Tight junctions - found in stomach, intestines and bladder. Transmembrane proteins fuse cells together to reinforce the junctions and seal off passageways prevent leaking

Gap junctions - small fluid filled tunnels between neighbouring cells eg nerves

Question 24

What are the names of the Organelles?

Answer 24

Key organelles in the body:-
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysomes
Cytoskeleton

Question 25

Organelles - Define the Nucleus?

Answer 25

Spherical structure containing body’s genetic info, in form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Nucleus is brain of the cell and contains a nucleolus which produces RNA (ribonucleic acid)

All body cells have a nucleus excepting red blood cells
Largest Organelle

Question 26

Organelles - Nucleus Membrane

Answer 26

Nucleus surrounded by a double layered nuclear membrane which separates nucleus from the cytoplasm

Membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum

I contains nuclear pores for substance movement in and out

Question 27

Chromosomes

Answer 27

Thread like structures of nucleic acids and proteins found in nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic info

Each cell in body has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) except sex cells

Normal body cells called somatic cells and sexc cells are gamates

Genes are arranged along chromosomes

Chromosomes are formed of DNA that has coiled up

Question 28

DNA / Chromosones- Structure?

Answer 28

Forms a double helix which coils around proteins called histones

Is organised into mass of compact string like fibres called chromatin

Pre cell division the chromatin condenses further and is subdivided to 46 molecules called chromosomes

Question 29

X & y Chromosomes

Answer 29

Women - 2 X

Men 1X 1Y

Its the 23rd set that dictates gender

If there is a genetic disease on the X in men can lead to sex linked genetic disease ias it cannot find a Y

Question 30

What are Genes?

Answer 30

Sub-sections of DNA
Act as instructions to make proteins
Located along chromosomes
1000’s of them
they hold the info to build and maintain cells and pass genetic traits
All body cells contains the full set of genes (genome)
1 gene code for the production of 1 protein
Only certain genes get switched on subject to the job

Question 31

Organelles - Cytoskeleton

Answer 31

A network of protein filaments that extend though the cytosol. They assist in-:

Generate cell movement eg muscle contraction
They determine the cell shape
They move chromosomes apart

Question 32

Organelles - Mitochondria

Answer 32

2nd largest organelle , bean shaped

The cell powerhouse cos generate ATP the bodys energy currency

Located near where the oxygen cells enter ie near the outside

Contain a double layered membrane with fluid in between

Cell can contain a 100 to many 1000 mitochondria

Muscle cells are thought to contain the most mitochondria

They use oxygen and nutrients to create ATP in a process called aerobic respiration:-
Glucose + Oxygen > CO2 + H2O + ATP

Question 33

Organelles - Ribosomes

Answer 33

Act as site of protein synthesis
Have high content of ribonucleic acid
Free Ribosomes make protein for inside the cell, those on the rough endoplasmic reticulum make protein for outside cell
They synthesis proteins for specific organelles

Question 34

Organelles - Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Answer 34

A network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs

Extends from nuclear envelope through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane.

Rough ER - continuous with nuclear membrane. Outer surface is studded with ribosomes - synthesises and transports proteins

Smooth ER - contains no ribosomes, so smooth appearance, contains unique enzymes and performs synsthesis of lipids and steroid hormones, detoxifies alcohol and drugs in the liver, releases calcium for muscle contraction

Question 35

Organelles - Golgi Apparatus

Answer 35

Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER.

Consists of flattened membranous sacs. Most cells have several Golgi