Lecture 1 - Intro to Pathology Flashcards
What is pathology?
The study of disease processes in the body
What is disease?
The body’s response to an injury causing deviation from normal conditions
What is etiology?
The study of the cause of diseases
What are the 5 causes of diseases?
- Hereditary
- Trauma
- Infectious organisms
- Vascular processes
- Metabolic processes
What are hereditary causes of diseases?
Genetic factors
What are trauma causes of diseases?
Physical injuries
What are infectious organism causes of diseases?
Bacteria, viruses
What are vascular processes of diseases?
Stroke, ischemia
What are metabolic processes of diseases?
Diabetes, thyroid imbalance
What are the two categories of diseases?
Structural and Functional
What are structural diseases?
Disease characteriszed by an observable, physical change in the structure of an organ or tissue
What are structural diseases classified by?
Lesions
What are examples of structural diseases?
Tumor, fracture or inflammation
What do structural diseases result from?
Identifiable physical damage to the body’s anatomy
What are functional diseases?
Diseases where there is no identifiable structural lesion, but the body still exhibits abnormal function
What are functional diseases classified by?
No lesions
What are examples of functional diseases?
- Mental Illness/dementia
- Neurosis/psychoses
- Headache
What two agents are structural changes initiated by?
- Endogenous
- Exogenous
What are endogenous agents?
Internal agents
- diseases caused by factors originating within the body
What causes endogenous agents?
Dysfunction or imbalance in internal systems
What are examples of endogenous agents?
- Vascular insuffiency
- Immunological/autoimmune reactions/diseases
- Abnormal metabolism
What are examples of vascular insufficiency?
Stroke, ischemia
What are examples of immunological/autoimmune reactions?
Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus
What are immunological/autoimmune reactions?
When the immune systems attacks the body’s own tissue
What are exogenous agents?
External agents
- Diseases caused by factors originating outsie the body
What causes exogenous agents?
Environmental or external exposures
What are examples of exogenous agents?
- Trauma
- Chemical
- Microbial infections
What is trauma?
Physical injuries from accidents, falls or blunt force
What are chemical factors?
Damage from exposure to harmful chemicals, toxins or drugs (poisoning/substance abuse)
What are microbial infections?
Diseases caused by external pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites (TB/Covid)
What is inflammation?
The body’s response to injury, involving swelling, heat and increased white blood cells
What are the five clinical signs of inflammation?
- Rubor (redness)
- Calor (heat)
- Tumor (swelling)
- Dolor (pain)
- Loss of function
What are the two phases of inflammation?
- Vascular Changes
- Formation of inflammatory exudate
What are the 3 types of vascular changes associated with inflammation?
- Blood vessel dilation
- Increased blood supply
- Leukocytosis
What is blood vessel dilation?
When the blood vessels at the site of injury or infection expand due to chemical signals like histamine
What does blood vessel dilation lead to?
Redness (erythema) and heat
What is the importance of increased blood supply in inflammation?
The greater blood supply brings immune cells, oxygen and nutrients to the site of injury to combat pathogens and aid tissue repair
What is leukocytosis?
When leukocytes accumulate at the site to attack pathogens and clear debris
What is inflammatory exudate?
critical component of the inflammatory process, composed of immune cells (leukocytes) and plasma components (serum), which together work to protect and repair tissues during injury or infection
What is the function of inflammatory exudate ?
- Dilutes Toxins
- Delivers Immune Factors
- Facilitates Healing
- Aids in Phagocytosis
What are the components of inflammatory exudate?
- PMNs (polymorphonuclear leukocytes
- Monocytes
- Plasma
What are PMN’s?
Primarily neutrophils that are the first to arrive at the site of inflammation
What is the function of PMN’s?
To introduce phagocytosis, which is engulfing and destroying pathogens/debris, and to release enzymes and oxygen to combat infection
What are key features of PMN’s?
Multi-lobed nuclei, which make them effective in responding to acute inflammation
What are monocytes?
White blood cells that migrateto the site of inflammation and differentiate into macrophages
What are the function of monocytes?
Clear pathogens, dead cells and debris, trigger a cytokine release which signals other immune cells to enhance their response and transition to chronic inflammation whicch sustains immunite activity if the issue persists
What is plamsa?
The fluid portion of blood that leaks out of capillaries due to increased vascular permeability
What are the components of plasma?
- Fluid which carries nutrients, antibodies and complement proteins
- Serum which is the fluid that remains after clotting factors are removed
What are leukocytes?
Cells like neutrophils and monocytes that participate in the immune response
What is serum?
Supplies proteins and mediators to enhance inflammation and support tissue repair
What are the two types of Lymphocytes?
B-cells and T-cells
What are B-cells?
Produce antibodies that bind to toxins or bacterial intigents, neutralizing their harmful effects
What are T-cells?
Target and destroy infected cells and coordinate their immune response
What is fibrin?
Helps limit infection and initiate tissue repair but may lead to adhesions if overproduced
What is suppuration?
Pus formation, which is the body’s effort to clear the infection
What are lesions?
Structureal changes in tissues due to injury, infection or disease
What are types of lesions?
Abscess
Ulcers
Sinus tracts
Fistula
What is an abscess?
A cavity fulled with pus in a tissue
What is an ulcer?
An excavation or open sore on the skin or mucous membrane caused by the sloughing off of necrotic tissue
What is a sinus tract?
A tract or channel that forms from an abscess to the body’s surface to allow pus to drain
What is a fistula?
An abnormal tract or connection between two epithelial surfaces such as the skin and mucous membrane
What are the two mechanisms of tissue repair?
- Regeneration
- Fibrous Connective Repair
What is regeneration?
The replacement of damaged tissue by the same type of cells, restoring normal structure and function
What is an example of regeneration?
Liver regeneration after partial removal
What is Fibrous Connective Repair?
Scar formation- which is when damaged tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissue forming a scar
What is infection?
Invasion of the body by a microorganism or biologic agent
What is a pathogen?
Disease causing organism
What is edema?
The accumulation of abnormal amounts of fluid in the intercellular tissue spaces or body cavities
What are the two types of edema?
Pitting edema and non-pitting edema
What is pitting edema?
Indentation in the affected areas and contains excess fluid mainly composed of water
What is non-pitting edema?
Associated with conditions affecting the thyroid and lymphatic systems and contains fluid mostly composed of proteins, salts and water
What are the treatments for edema?
Mild cases- resolve on their own with elevation
Severe cases- resolve with diuretic
Chronic cases - compression socks to promote circulation
What are the common risk factors of edema?
- medications
- obesity
- sitting/standing too long
- low protein levels
- pregnancy
What is anasarca?
Generalized edema that occurs with pronounced swelling of the subcutaneous tissue throughout the body
What is ischemia?
Reduced blood flow to tissues due to blockages
What is ischemia caused by?
- Narrowing of an artery (artheroscleorsis)
- thrombotic occlusion
- embolic occlusion
What is an ischemic stroke?
Obstruction blocks blood flow to part of the brain
What is a hemorrhagic stroke?
Weakened vessle walls rupture and cause bleeding in the brain
What are the signs of a stroke?
BE FASTT
- Loss of Balance
- Blurred Vision
- Facial Droop
- Arm or leg weakness
- Speech deformity
- Sudden or severe headache
- Time to call the ambulance
What is an infarction?
Localized area of ischemic necrosis within a tissue or organ
What is hemorrhage?
The rupture of a blood vessel that allows blood to escape externally or internally, within surrounding tissues or cavity
What does bleeding into a tissue result in?
Hematoma
What are the 3 classifications of hemorrhage?
Capillary
Venous
Arterial
What is capillary hemorrhage classified by?
Slow, even flow of blood that is bright red in color
What is venous hemorrhage classified by?
Stead, slow flow of blood that is dark red in color
What is arterial hemorrage classified by?
Spurting blood with a pulsating flow that’s bright red in color
What does alterations of cell growth refer to?
The changes in the number and size of cells, their differentiation and their arrangement
What is neoplasia?
Is from the latin word for new growth and is defined as an abnormal proliferation of cells that are no longer controlled by the factors that govern the growth of normal cells
What are the two types of neoplasia?
Benign and malignant (cancer)
What is atrophy?
The reduction in the size or number of cells in an organ with a corresponding decrease in function
What is hypertrophy?
Increase in the size of the cells of a tissue in response to a demand for increased function
What is hyperplasia?
Increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ
What is Dysplasia?
Loss of uniformity of an individual cells
What is neoplasia?
Ungoverened abnormal proliferation of cell
What is oncology?
The study of neoplasms (tumors)
What is benign?
Growth which closely resembles its cells of origin in function and structure
What is malignant?
Neoplastic growth that invalides and destroys adjacent structures
What is metastasize?
Malignant neoplasm travel to distant sites
What is carcinoma?
Malignant neoplam of epithelia cell origin
What is anaplastic?
Undifferentiated cell growth- without form
What is sarcoma?
Highly malignant tumor originating from connective tissue
What is lymphatic spread?
Major route of carcinoma to metastasize
What is grading?
Assessment of aggressiveness or degree of malignancy
What is staging?
Extensiveness of tumor at the pmriary site, presence or absense of metasteases to lymph nodes and distant organs
What is epidemiology?
Study of determinants of disease events in given populations
What is morbity?
Rate that an illness or abnormality occurs
What is mortality?
Reflects the number of deaths by disease per population
What do hereditary diseases result from?
An abnormality in the DNA
How are heredity diseases passed on?
They pass from one generation to the next through the genetic infomation contained in the nucleus of each cell
What are common hereditary diseases?/
Cancer, down syndrome, autism, arthtities, alzheimers, trisomy, diabetes, turner symdrome
What are autosomes?
44 chromosomes other than X and Y
What are dominent genes?
Always produce an effect
What are recessive genes?
Manifest themselves when a person is homosygous for the trait
What is a mutation?
Alteration in the DNA structurea that may become permanent hereditary changes
If the father/mother are carries of a hereditary gene what is the probability it gets passed on?
25% healthy
50% carrier
25% sick
What is an example of a genetic mutation?
Polydactylt where a foot has too many toes
What are 3 types of immune reactions?
- Anaphylactic
- Cytotoxic
- Delayed
What is a cytotoxic reaction?
An allergic reaction where antibodies bind to the surface of a cell, leading to the activation of the complement system and cell destruction
What are examples of cytotoxic reaction?
Hemolytic anemia, RH incompatibility or drug introduced cytotixicty
What are naturally acquired immunities?
Occurs through exposure to pathogens or maternal transfer, without medical intervention
What is an Active Naturally Acquired immunity?
Immunity developed after natural exposure to a pathogen
How do active naturally acquired immunities work?
The immune system response to the infection by producing antibodies and memory cells
What is an example of a active naturally acquired immunity?
Recovery from chickenpox leads to lifelone immunicty
What is a Passive Natural Acquired immunity?
Immunity provided by transferring antibodies from one person to another
How do passive naturally acquired immunities work?
No active participation by the recipient’s immune system, immunity is temporary
What is an example of a passive naturally acquired immunity?
Antibodies passed from mother to baby through placenta or breastmilk
What is an artificaially acquired immunity?
Accurs through medical intervention, such as vaccines or antibody administration
What is an active artificially acquired immunity?
Immunity developed after exposure to antigents introduced artificially
How do active artificially acquired immunities work?
The immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies and memory cells
What is an example of active artificially acquired immunities?
The MMR vaccine
What are passive artificailly acquired immunities?
Immunity conferred by administering pre-formed antibodies
How do passive artificially acquired immunities work?
No activation of the recipient’s immune system- is short term
What is an example of passive artificially acquired immunity?
Receiving immunoglobins for tetanus or rabies after exposure
