Learning psychology Flashcards
What are the assumptions of the learning approach
The major influence on human behaviour is learning from our environment
Laws of learning are the same for all species
Psych should be study of observable behaviour, learning is stimulus-response
Scientific methods lead to knowledge
What are the 5 ethical considerations of The scientific procedures act 1986
Care over caging
Avoiding discomfort and distress
Suitably qualified researchers
Cost-benefit analysis
Look for alternatives
What are the 3 factors Bateson said you need to take into account
Degree of suffering - low
Quality of research - high
Certainty of benefit - high
What is classical conditioning
learning by association where natural reflexes are paired with neutral stimuli
What are the 5 key terms for classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus - innate stimulus that causes an automatic reflex response
Unconditioned response - innate response to a specific stimulus which is automatically produced
Neutral stimulus - elicits no response
Conditioned stimulus - stimulus which initially produces no reflexive response but repetitively paired with UCS so now associated with it to produce a response
Conditioned response - learnt response to a stimulus occurs when CS presented. Same response as UCS but to a different stimulus
What is extinction and spontaneous recovery in CC
Extinction: If a CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS the CR will disappear
Spontaneous recovery: Temporary return of extinct response after a delay
What was the aim of Pavlov’s study
Investigate the reflex response of salivation to see how reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations.
What was the sample of Pavlov’s study
25 years, 23 studies, 35 various dog breeds
What was the procedure of Pavlov’s study
Baseline condition - put meat in dogs mouth to measure salivation to compare
Control condition - presented dog with food
Experimental condition - Presented dogs with metronome, buzzer and tuning fork - no salivation so NS. Paired food arrival with metronome a few times then presented it on its own.
Did forward and backward conditioning
What were the findings of Pavlov study
Baseline - secretion 1-2 seconds after food in mouth
Control - secretion started after 5 seconds and 6 drops collected after 15 seconds
Experimental - secretion 9 seconds after metronome and 11 drops collected after 45 seconds
Forward produced salivation but backwards didn’t
What was the conclusion of Pavlov’s study
‘Signalisation’ in the brain links the metronome to food and gives a reflex response of salivation
2 positives of Pavlov’s study
+ Standardised procedure - Kept in same environment and same stimulus’
+ Practical applications - help to treat phobias
2 negatives of Pavlov’s study
- Anthropomorphic - humans more complex than dogs
- Eco validity - special chamber
What was the aim of Watson and Rayners study
Too see if classical conditioning could create an irrational fear and to see if that fear could be transferred over to other animals and objects
What was the procedure of Watson and Rayners study
First assessed little albert at 9 months old to ensure no fear of white rat
White rat presented at same time as 2 metal bars banging together creating distressing Nosie
After a while the baby was distressed without the metal bars
The replaced by white items like cotton wool and fur
What was the findings of Watson and Rayner
After 5 trials he was scared of the rat
After 12 he was scared of any white object
What was the conclusion of Watson and Rayner
A conditioned emotional response can occur after a few pairings of stimuli are presented
2 positives of Watson and Rayner
+ cause and effect - lab setting
+ confidentiality - pseudonym
2 negatives of Watson and Rayner
- Population validity - 1 person so cant generalise
- eco validity - not in natural setting
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement has the effect on increasing the likelihood of behaviour being repeated but punishment decreases the likelihood of negative behaviour repeating
What is vicarious reinforcement
See a role model being reinforced for their behaviour so imitate to receive the reinforcement
aim of bandura 61
investigate whether young people will imitate an aggressive role model
Sample of bandura 61
72 participants from Stanford university nursery aged 3-5 with 36 males and females
Procedure of bandura 61
Participants assigned to 1 of 10 conditions
Sat opposite a model and observed for 10 mins before taken to a mild aggression arousal room
Then taken to room with bobo doll mallet and nail gun
Observed through 2 way mirror and recorded every 5 seconds on their pre determined code for 20 mins - 5 point scale for aggression
Findings of Bandura 61
More likely to copy same sex with boys more than girls
Boys more physical, same for verbal aggression
Children in non aggressive model showed little aggression
Conclusion of Bandura 61
Children are likely to copy behaviour which they are unlikely to produce of watching a role model do it.
Explains acquisition of new responses
Aim of Bandura 63
Investigate if kids would imitate aggression when it was seen on a screen
More likely to imitate a cartoon model?
Sample of Bandura 63
96 3-5 year olds from Stanford uni nursery 46 boys and girls
Procedure of Bandura 63
Real life aggression model - Saw a role model playing normally then aggressively in a structured way
Human filmed aggression - watched same model be aggressive to bobo doll on pre recorded projector
Cartoon aggression - black cat being aggressive to bobo doll with artificial flowers and grass
Findings of Bandura 63
Mean aggression scores:
Real life - 83
Human film - 92
Cartoon - 99
Control - 54
still more boys than girls
Conclusion of Bandura 63
Exposure to aggressive models increased chance of aggression
Violent acts were clearly observed and imitated
Aim of Bandura 65
Investigate impact of a model receiving consequences for aggression
Procedure of Bandura 65
Experimenter left for 5 mins of programme
Model laid doll on its side, sat on it, punched it and pummelled head with a mallet
Reward condition got clearly rewarded
Punished condition got sat on and hit with newspaper
Kids got stickers and juice as incentive
Sample of Bandura 65
66 p’pants 33:33 aged 3-5 years old from Stanford uni nursery
11 boys and 11 girls in each consequence (reward, punish, nothing)
Findings of Bandura 65
Most imitative behaviour shown when model rewarded, then nothing, then punished
Boys imitated aggression more than girls
Incentive of juice and stickers increased imitation in all conditions
Conclusion of Bandura 65
Imitation of aggressive behaviour is influenced by observing consequences
Supports idea of vicarious reinforcement
2 negatives of all banduras studies
- Lacked population validity - Stanford university nursery aged 3-5
- Demand characteristics - highly controlled artificial setting so unusual and may have caused them to act different
2 positives of all banduras studies
+ Inter rater reliability - 2 experimenters through 1 way mirror using coding units
+ Practical applications - different for all 3
How can classical conditioning explain acquisition of phobias
UCS (thunder) –> UCR (fear)
NS (Lightning) –> NR (no response)
UCS+NS (thunder + lightning) –> UCR (fear)
CS (lightning) –> CR (fear)
How can SLT explain acquisition of phobias
Attention - seen someone get scared
Retention - remembered the response they showed
Reproduction - copy the fear shown
Motivation - might be a role model so motivated to be like them
What is systematic desensitisation
Aims to gradually reduce the fear response by easing them into the fear - reciprocal inhibition says you cant feel 2 conflicting emotions together so SD replaces fear with calm - based on classical conditioning
How can operant conditioning explain maintenance of phobias
Positive reinforcement - attention/sympathy of phobia
Negative reinforcement - avoid the phobia
How do you use systematic desensitisation
First client is taught relaxation techniques like visualisation and breathing exercises
Then they create a feart hierarchy from least scary to most scary - in vitro at the bottom means imaginary situations occurring in vivo at the top in real life situations occur
Finally they are gradually exposed and work way down hierarchy
2 positives of systematic desensitisation
+ Supporting evidence - Capafons
+ Ethical - patient in full control
2 negatives of systematic desensitisation
- Requires commitment - may be high drop out rate
- Cant treat more general anxiety disorders
What is flooding
Being physically placed in the phobia immediately for a long period of time to reduce the fear of being in that scenario -
based counter conditioning
In vitro or in vivo
Wont be able to leave until they are calm
2 positives of flooding
+ Quick and economical
+ Supporting evidence - Wolpe - took a girl scared of cars and drove her for several hours went from hysterical to calm
2 negatives of flooding
- Unethical - protection from psych harm
- Short lived - spontaneous recovery of the fear (previous fear returns)
What was the aim of Capafons
To investigate the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation
What was the sample of Capafons
volunteer sample of 41 - 20 received treatment 21 were waiting to
Random assignments although controls in place
What was the procedure of Capafons
Pre test consisted of: interview, EMV (fear scale), EPAV (scale of expectation of danger and anxiety and heart rate etc
During 8 weeks received 2 1 hour sessions per week
Relaxation training before developing and working through a hierarchy
Each took 2 flights within 7 days of completed therapy
Post test same stuff taken as pre (interviews)
What was the findings of Capafons
Pre test - very little difference between the 2 groups before treatment
Post test - stat sig difference between those who received SD and those that didn’t - those who did were significantly less afraid control
Fear scale Pre test - 25.6, Post Test - 13.25
What was the conclusion of Capafons
SD treatment can significantly improve fear of phobias
2 positives of Capafons
+ Standardised procedure - all asked same questions in interviews and same self report measures
+ Practical applications
2 negatives of Capafons
- Demand characteristics - they knew the aim of the study
- Lacks pop validity - motivated as opportunity sample
What is the learning key question do
Would it be a good idea for airline companies to offer treatment programmes for fear of flying
Describe the key question (4)
Fear of flying is known as aerophobia and according to the DSM-V, phobia is characterised by persistent fear of planes, rapid anxiety when exposed to one and attempts to avoid
Estimates 2.5-5% of people have a genuine fear of flying
Some airlines offer fear reduction treatment programmes e.g. EasyJet - fearless flyers course and Virgin - flying without fear course
This is a good idea for social, emotional and economic reasons
Explain key question (4)
SD is based on CC that learning is by association - may have seen a plane crash on TV so associated them together
SD works on reciprocal inhibition so you cant feel 2 emotions together so it replaces anxiety with calm
airline companies use Relaxation techniques UCS –> UCR etc
Capafons…
4 things that make a study scientific
Experimental - IV manipulated, DV measured
Objectivity - No bias or interpretation
Falsification - Was there a hypothesis with IV and DV
Reliable - standardised procedure
Describe content analysis (4)
Indirect observation used to examine secondary data, usually different media sources
Takes qualitative data and turns it quantitative
Creates categories to measure common themes
Counts frequency of particular coding units by tallying the number of times it appears within the source
2 Strengths of content analysis
Ecological validity - Real media sources are used that haven’t been manipulated by the researcher so they represent current relevant topics to society - TF naturally occurring representing natural opinions and behaviours o can be generalised
Practical - original qual data wasn’t collected by researcher so can collect large amounts in small time. TF economical
2 Weaknesses of content analysis
Researcher bias - Qual data turned to quant data is interpreted by researcher so may have different interpretations of coding units so tallying on their own opinion. TF reducing internal validity and reliability
Ethnocentric - secondary sources written by someone of one culture for one culture so coding units based on the researchers understanding of the culture TF unrepresentative
What 3 things make a Chi Squared
Nominal data
Independant group designs
Test of difference
When are findings significant in chi squared
Observed value needs to be more than or equal to critical value
What was the aim of the learning practical
To investigate the difference between males + females studying in the common room or doing something else
What was the naturally occurring IV and the DV of the learning practical
IV - Difference in gender
DV - Number of people studying
What was the sample of the learning practical
An opportunity sample of 27 year 12 and 13 students at the WBS
What was the procedure of the learning practical
2 observers enter the common room and go round to observe the behaviour of everyone
Tally quant data of of whether they were or weren’t studying
Take qual data more detail about their studying/other behaviour
Gather totals and do a chi squared for the quant
Analyse the qual and find main themes
What were the findings of our learning practical
8/15 boys studying
9/12 girls studying
observed value of 1.33 for 1 tail at 0.05 significance with df 1 was lower than critical 2.71 so no stat sig difference between girls and boys studying or not
What is behaviour shaping and and example
Start by reinforcing any behaviour which is even vaguely related to the required behaviour. Continue to reinforce behaviour which is closer to the desired behaviour and then eventually reinforce them doing the actual behaviour.
Pigeon turning in a circle - reinforce when they slightly turn that way and keep going until they turn all the way round
What are schedules of reinforcement
Concerns how many times the behaviour needs to occur for the reward to be given or how much time must occur before the reward is given.
What are interval schedules and the 2 examples
Reinforcement is provided after a period of time
Fixed interval schedule - A reward is given after a specified amount of time
Variable Interval Schedule - Rewarding a behaviour on a random length of time - New time period set after first time period passes
What are ratio schedules and the 2 examples
Reinforcement provided after a number of correct behaviours
Fixed ratio schedule - Reinforcing a response only after a specified number of correct responses
Variable ratio schedule - Rewarding a behaviour after a random number of correct responses
What is positive reinforcement with an example
Something pleasant is given when a desirable behaviour is shown - increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Award at award ceremony
What is negative reinforcement with an example
Something unpleasant is taken away when a desirable behaviour is shown - Increasing likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Use seatbelt=Annoying noise stops
What is negative punishment with an example
Something pleasant taken away when desirable behaviour is shown - decreases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Take phone away
What is positive punishment with an example
Something unpleasant is given when an undesirable behaviour is shown - decreases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Hitting them
What is a primary reinforcer and an example
Anything that satisfies a basic want/need
When a pigeon pecks at a disk to recieve a food pellet the food is the primary reinforcer as it satisfies a basic need
What is a secondary reinforcer and an example
Things that are given to exchange for a primary reinforcer
Giving a token for finishing dinner that can be exchanged for dessert
3 types of conditioning in classical conditioning
Forward conditioning: this means that the NS/CS (e.g. buzzer) is presented before the UCS (e.g. food).
Spontaneous conditioning: this means simultaneous presentation of the NS/CS (buzzer) & UCS (food).
Backward conditioning: this means that the UCS (e.g. food) is presented first and then the NS/CS (e.g. buzzer) appears. So the NS is presented after the UCS
What is stimulus generalisation and discrimination
Generalisation - extension of conditioned response from original stimulus to similar stimulus
Distinction - conditioned response is to specific stimulus
2 strengths of classical conditioning
Supporting evidence - Watson and Raynor
Prac app - knowing phobias can be created helped make treatments like SD. TF knowledge of this theory can help people and increase quality of life
2 weaknesses of classical conditiong
Reductionist - learning is a consequence of CC and stimulus response but learning is more complex e.g. operant conditioning
Problems with supporting evidence - Watson and Rayner is a single individual unique case
4 AO1 of operant conditioning
- What operant conditioning is
- Define positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Positive and negative punishment
2 strengths of operant conditioning
Supporting evidence - Skinner - placed rat in box where to get food must press lever. Once the rat did it and was reinforced with food the rat began to repeat the behaviour.
Prac app - Token economy is based on operant conditioning so can be used in schools like gold stars to positively reinforce good behaviour so its more likely repeated
2 weaknesses of operant conditioning
Criticisms with supporting research - Skinner used rats so anthropomorphic
Reductionist - too simplistic learning is more complex e.g. classical or SLT
Define overt observation
Researcher is not undercover when watching p’pants behaviour
The p’pants are aware that they are being watched so behaviour would be recorded with direct consent
The researcher may write down qual data that they experience day to day of the participants
2 strengths of overt observation
Ethics - Will gain informed consent as not doing it undercover without p’pants knowing so know hey are being observed
2 weaknesses of overt observation
Researcher effect - if p’pants aware of observation taking place so may change behaviour to socially desirable behaviours so there behaviour is not naturally occurring.
Define covert observation
Researcher is undercover when watching p’pants behaviour
The p’pants are not aware that they are being watched so behaviour would be recorded without direct consent
The researcher may write down qual data that they experience day to day of the participants
2 strengths of covert observation
High validity - behaviours are natural due to unaware of observation. TF no demand characteristics
Objective - researcher doesn’t interact with p’pants so recording of behaviour is not influenced by p’pants. TF researcher unbiased increasing validity
2 weaknesses of covert observation
Ethics - May not gain informed consent as doing it undercover without p’pants knowing
Hard to conduct - may prove difficult to get a group to research without them knowing
Define participant observation
The researcher is part of the group being observed, so does interact with the P’pants
Researcher would count the numbers of behaviours from close so may to influence the p’pants behaviour
Researcher may write down qual descriptions of p’pant responses whilst being a p’pant themselves
2 strengths of participant observation
Rapport - as researcher is taking part in the study they build a connection with the participant meaning they may open up more and show their true behaviour. TF increasing validity of behaviour shown by p’pants.
Objective - As researcher is interacting with the people involved it means they can get more clarity on the observed behaviours they record.
2 weaknesses of participant observation
Researcher effect - if overt then p’pants aware of observation so may change behaviour
Difficult to record data - As they are taking part they cannot fully focus on the other participants behaviour as they have to complete the research too.
Define non participant observation
The researcher is not part of the group being observed, so does not interact with the P’pants
Researcher would count the numbers of behaviours from afar so not to influence the p’pants behaviour
Researcher may write down qual descriptions of p’pant responses without being a p’pant themselves
2 strengths of non participant observation
Objective - researcher doesn’t interact with p’pants so recording of behaviour is not influenced by p’pants. TF researcher unbiased increasing validity
Record data easily - not taking part so can fully focus on recording data
2 weaknesses of non participant observation
Researcher effect - if overt then p’pants aware of observation so may change behaviour
Subjective - not interacting with p’pants so may not have clarity on certain behaviours
Define naturalistic observation
Take place in a natural environment to the p’pants
The researcher would count the number of behaviours the p’pants show in their natural setting
The researcher may write down any qualitative data descriptions of the participants whilst in their environment
2 strengths of naturalistic observation
Ecological validity - happens in a natural everyday setting for the p’pant
Mundane realism
2 weaknesses of naturalistic observation
Extraneous variables not controlled - cannot establish cause and effect so low validity
Subjective interpretation - researcher has to observe but may change due to differences in the environment meaning they have to subjectively interpret the behaviours shown
Define controlled observation
Take place in a controlled environment to the p’pants often a lab setting
The researcher would count the number of behaviours the p’pants show in the controlled setting or may write down qual data descriptions
The researcher would try to control all extraneous variables so they can establish cause and effect
2 strengths of controlled observation
Cause and effect - extraneous variables controlled so increased validity as cause and effect can be established. TF …
Reliability - As in a lab setting with extraneous variables controlled procedure is standardised for all p’pants. TF can be replicated to find similar observations
2 weaknesses of controlled observation
Mundane realism -
Eco validity - highly controlled artificial lab setting
4 AO1 for SLT
- SLT says that learning occurs from observation and imitation of a role model and this is likely to happen if the role model is the same sex, powerful and respected and if the model is reinforced
- Attention is behaviour must be noticed and watched. Retention is behaviour that’s observed must be remembered
- Reproduction is behaviour is imitated by observer. Motivation is must have desire to imitate observed behaviour
- Vicarious reinforcement is where you see the model being reinforced so you imitate to receive the same positive reinforcement
2 strengths of SLT
Supported by bandura 61 - children more likely to imitate same se role models especially boys. Tf supporting …
Prac app - Knowing children O+I role models can put things in place like the 9pm watershed
2 weaknesses of SLT
Reductionist - only nurture not nature
Problems with supporting research - Sample or setting
Describe thematic analysis(4)
Methods used to codify a primary source that generated qual data
Analyses and reports themes in qual data
Allows research to shorten qual data to summarise main features – allows conclusions
Raw data gives codes, codes form themes, themes and thematic maps
Conclusions relate to the research Q’s or purpose of the study.
2 strengths of thematic analysis
Primary source used - Conducted on primary data which has not been interpreted or manipulated by other researchers. TF the data used is a valid source of data which increases the validity
Reduces a large amount of data into a manageable summary - codes generated, and summarised further into common themes to reflect the overarching findings of the data. This makes it easier for meaningful conclusions to be drawn from qual data. TF themes are carefully considered so findings generated are considered at valid
