Cognitive Psycholohy Flashcards
What are case studies
An in depth detailed investigation conducted on an individual criminal or small group or institution
Use range of methods by triangulations to study people using both quant and qual such as observations, experiments and interviews.
Often longitudinal as stay with person over a long period of time to see changes in behaviour.
Collect primary and secondary data such as observations of their behaviour and secondary such as hospital notes of the patient
What is triangulation
Both qualitative and quantitative data are gathered using a range of methods such as interviews, observations and experiments to analyse behavior.
2 strengths of case studies
Ecological validity - real life, natural setting.
Gather rich detailed qualitative data - Variety of methods like observations and interviews increasing validity.
2 weaknesses of case studies
Population validity - single one off case so unrepresentative and not generalisable.
Researcher bias - May become too involved and lose objectivity reducing reliability.
What is a laboratory experiment
An experiment in a highly controlled labatory setting
The researcher manipulates the IV, the DV is measured
All extraneous variables controlled
2 positives and 2 negatives of lab experiments
+ High internal validity
+ Standardised procedure
- Lack mundane realism
- Lacks ecological validity
What is a field experiment
Conducted in a natural setting of the participants everyday life
IV is manipulated by the researcher
Extraneous variables cant be controlled so may effect DV
2 positives and 2 negatives of field experiments
+ Mundane realism
+ Ecological validity
- Low control/internal validity
- Ethics - Informed consent
What is natural experiment
Located in a natural situation from a naturally occurring event
IV is naturally occurring
Extraneous variables cant be controlled so may effect DV
2 positives and 2 negatives of natural experiments
+Eco validity
+No experimenter effects
- Cause and effect
- Ethics (cant give informed consent)
What are the 2 order effects
Practice effect - participant may become practiced so their performance may improve
Fatigue effect - become tired so performance deteriorates
What are the 2 extraneous variable types with examples
Participant variables - Age, gender, IQ
Situational variables - Weather, Temperature, noise level
2 positives and 2 negatives of independent group design
+ No order effect(want display practice or order effects)
+ Demand Characteristics(less chance of guessing the aim)
- Not economical(twice the amount of participants needed than repeated measures)
- Participant variables(individual differences)
2 positives and 2 negatives of repeated measures design
+ Economical
+ Participant variables are controlled
- Order effects
- Demand characteristics
2 positives and 2 negatives of matched pairs design
+ No order effects
+ Demand characteristics
- Not economical
- Participant variables
What are the 3 stages used in the MSM
Encoding - involves converting the info we receive from our senses into something that we can represent mentally
Storage - involves holding info over a period of time until its needed
Retrieval - Involves recovering stored info
How do SM move to STM and how are they forgotten
SM —> STM by attention
Forgotten by decay
What is the capacity, duration and storage mode of SM
Unlimited capacity
1/2 seconds
Any storage mode
How do STM move to LTM and how are they forgotten
STM —> LTM by rehearsal
Forgotten by decay or displacement
What is the capacity, duration and storage mode of STM
7 +/- 2 capacity
18-30 seconds
Acoustic storage mode
How do LTM move to STM and how are they forgotten
LTM —> STM by retrieval
Forgotten by retrieval failure
What is the capacity, duration and storage mode of LTM
Unlimited capacity
Unlimited duration
Semantic storage
2 positives of MSM
+ Supporting evidence from case studies - Clive Wearing who cannot form new memories but can remember past memories when prompted. Tf supporting 2 separate memory stores
+ Positive applications to society - Butler + Roediger found students who took short recall tests after each lecture could remember more info a month later - useful in classroom
2 negatives of MSM
- Other theories - WMM says STM is split into 2 VSS and PL
- Reductionist - underplays interconnection between different memory systems
What is the aim of Baddeley’s study
Investigate the influence of acoustic and semantic word similarity on learning and recall in STM and LTM. Shows how info is encoded to test MSM.
What is the sample of Baddeleys study
72 Participants from the applied psychology research subject panel.
What was the procedure of Baddeley’s study
Independent groups
Each of the groups were shown a list of 10 words either acoustically or semantically similar or dissimilar
They then did 6 distractor tasks where they were required to recall 8digit sequences
Then had to recall the order of their original list - process repeated 3 times
One 15 minute interference task before a surprise recall test at the end
What are the findings of Baddeley’s study.
At first participants found it harder to remember acoustically similar words than acoustically dissimilar.
By the end they found it harder to remember semantically similar words than dissimilar
What did Baddeley conclude from his study
STM encodes info acoustically and LTM encodes info semantically.
Supporting MSM as 2 separate stores for memory
2 positives of Baddeley’s study
+ High internal validity - lab setting, extraneous variables controlled, establish cause and effect
+ Standardised procedure - same procedure: interference task, number of words
2 negatives of Baddeley’s study
- Lacks Population validity - 72 participants from the applied psychology research subject panel
- Demand Characteristics - Lab setting where they were aware they were taking part
What is the working memory model
An explanation of short term memory consisting of the central executive, visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
What is the Central Executive and what is its role
Responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of slave systems and relates them to LTM
Decides which info is attended to and which is ignored
Integrates 2 slave systems
What is the visuospatial sketchpad and what’s its role
“Inner eye” deals with visual and spatial info
Difficult to perform 2 visual tasks at the same time as they interfere with each other and performance is reduced
visual and verbal processing tasks can be done together with no interference proving that phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are 2 different systems in working memory.
What’s the phonological loop and what’s its role.
Deals with spoken and written material and contains the phonological store and the articulatory control.
What is the phonological store and its role
“inner ear” that holds info in speech based form for 1-2 seconds
Spoken words enter the store directly and written word must be converted to spoken form before entering.
What is the articulatory control and its role
“Inner voice” that circulates info round and round like a tape loop where as long as we keep repeating this we can retain the info in working memory
Converts written material into a spoken form and transfers it to the phonological store.
2 positives of Working memory model
+ Supporting evidence from Baddeley et al - tracking and imagery tasks difficult together but tracking and verbal together wasn’t difficult
+ Positive applications to society - can be used in schools to ensure children learn as well as possible
2 negatives of Working memory model
- Opposing evidence from Liebermann - blind people cant see but have great spatial awareness o should be separate
- Reductionist - underplays connection between different systems so too simplistic
What are the differences between semantic and episodic (4)
- Episodic recalls past memories and experiences(mental diary) whereas Semantic is facts, numbers and concepts (mental encyclopaedia)
- Episodic is time referenced but semantic is not, this means events that happened to you are linked to the time which they occurred whereas facts can be recalled without reference to the time it was learnt
- Episodic is recalled more accurately in the context it happened but accuracy isn’t affected by context for semantic
- Spatial referencing: Episodic memories are inputted at one period of time (because one event, e.g. a birthday party is experienced in its entirety at one time). In contrast, semantic memories can be inputted in a fragmented way; such that separate pieces of information about the same topic can be learnt at different times, but stored together
2 positives of Tulving’s episodic and semantic theory
+ Supporting evidence from Ostegaard - boy could store semantic memories but not episodic - separate and semantic doesn’t require episodic
+ Practical applications - Episodic memories are most accurate in same setting so take psych tests where we learnt it
2 negatives of episodic and semantic memory
- Opposing evidence of Clive Wearing - Problems with recalling and retaining semantic and episodic memories but could play piano still so doesn’t account for skills which is procedural memory
- Reductionist - underplays the interconnections of different memory stores like STM and LTM as suggested by MSM
What is Bartlett’s reconstructive memory theory
We actively reconstruct the information drawing on past experiences. This is done by using schemas to fill in the gaps
What is levelling, rationalisation and assimilation
Levelling: Story becomes shorter and more coherent
Rationalisation: Changing the order of events
Assimilation: Story becomes more consistent with participants own cultural experiences.
4 AO1 points in an 8 marker on Bartlett’s theory
- Schemas are patterns of thoughts that help organise info in our mind
- Actively reconstruct info by drawing on past experience
- use schemas to fill in the gaps which may distort recall
- Distorted recall may be due to assimilation rationalisation and levelling
2 positives of Bartlett’s theory
+ Supporting evidence from Bartlett’s war of the ghosts - 20 english college kids to recall the story, asked to recall multiple times in a year and became distorted due to L, R and A. TF concluding ‘schema effect’
+ Positive applications to society - used in eyewitness testimonies as we understand recall can be unreliable.
2 negatives of Bartlett’s theory
- Criticisms of supporting evidence - Lacked standardisation for example found a student 6 years later and asked them to recall so no validity
- Alternative theories of memory - Tulving says LTM is episodic and semantic not stored as schemas
What was the aim of Steyvers & Hemmers
Investigate interaction between semantic and episodic memory and to see if schemas for particular natural settings hindered or aided memory for objects within them.
What was the sample of Steyvers & Hemmers
Random sample of 49 people from the university of California
What was the procedure of Steyvers and hemmers
Each participant saw set of stimuli containing: Kitchen, office, hotel, urban and dining area
4 Different experimental conditions e.g. 10,10,10,2,2
Random order images were presented
Participants had to recall all 5 scenes
What were the findings of Steyvers & Hemmers
Mean objects recalled during free recall: Short duration (2 seconds) was 7.75 items, Long duration (10 seconds) was 10.05
What was the conclusion of Steyvers and hemmers
When recalling naturalistic scenes, prior knowledge from semantic memory can aid recall in episodic tasks.
2 Positives of Steyvers and Hemmers
+ Standardised procedure - All shown same pictures and had same task
+ Practical application - Shows how reliable eye witness testimonies can be
2 negatives of Steyvers and Hemmers
- Lacks mundane realism - not everyday task should be watching cctv instead
- Lacked population validity - 49 all from uni of California
How can processing speed differentiate for different people
STM has capacity of 7 +/- 2 so someone may have 5 more (miller)
Age - kids have shorter digit spans
Dyslexia and ADHD due to info overload
How can schemas differentiate for different people
Schemas fill in gaps based off experiences but everyone has different experiences
Age - more experiences
Rationalisation, levelling and assimilation based on individual experiences
Use stereotypes and people have different ones (e.g. bank robbers wear all black)
How can autobiographical memory (episodic) differentiate for different people
Mental diary based on individual experiences or events
Linked to time and context specific to that person and their perspective when recalled
People may recall same events differently based on own insight in situation
What is the cognitive key question (AO1)
How can psychologists understanding of memory help patients with Alzheimer’s
What is the definition of alzheimers(AO1)
Alzheimer’s is a progressive, degenerative neurological disorder associated with aging that causes memory loss, confusion and inability to carry out simple tasks
What is validation therapy(AO1)
In Hogeway Netherlands there is a care home which is really a functioning town for residents to live in. Gives them sense of freedom and acceptance whilst still having necessary care and attention
What theory of memory supports validation therapy(AO2)
Bartletts theory of schemas suggest that we use our past experiences
What are memory buses(AO1)
Old fashioned buses are used to give patients a trip down memory lane as the buses, the music and the attire of the drivers are all fitting of an old fashioned time period
What theory of memory supports memory buses(AO2)
Tulving’s episodic memory says there memories are linked to time and context. The context of the buses allow episodic referencing to be more accurate. Aids memory and preserves it.
What’s cognitive stimulation(AO1)
Brain training where games and puzzles can be done in order to maintain the brains activity.
What is ordinal data
Scores are ranked. We know nothing but the order smallest to the largest
What is interval data
Scores are in order but also have measurement so we know the difference
What is nominal data
Don’t get the score for individual people just the number of people in a category
What theory of memory supports cognitive stimulation (AO2)
Multi store model - a child’s puzzle may stimulate the multi store memory model to increase its short term capacity being 7 +/-2
What is memory (KQ AO2)
A cognitive function used to retain info for later recall
Encode store and retrieve info which makes up our memory
Long term is semantic with unlimited capacity and duration
We can forget info means no longer recall info from LTM
What is the aim of our cognitive practical
To investigate the impact of schemas on recall
What is the procedure of the cognitive practical
Shown 20 images for 10 seconds on a screen
After 10 seconds they disappear and a mental arithmetic problem pops up with 30 seconds to complete
After this they have 40 seconds to recall as many items off the board as possible
Fully debriefed at the end
What were the findings of the cognitive practical
Mean objects recalled in related condition (kitchen) 7.93
Mean objects recalled in unrelated condition (random) 9.44
What was the conclusion of the cognitive practical
Recall of images of objects is not dir4ctly improved by schemas as related objects were not recalled easier than unrelated objects
2 positives of the cognitive practical
+ Standardised procedure - all had same time same amount of items and arithmetic problem
+ Cause and effect - all extraneous variables controlled like full view of board
2 Negatives of the cognitive practical
- Population validity - Only used 16-17 yr olds WBS psych students
- Lacks Mundane realism - Not an everyday task
2 assumptions of cognitive approach
Useful to use the computer processing model to explain human cognition.
The info processing model is a useful way of describing the way humans receive interpret and respond to information
How did HM become brain damaged
He had a surgery on his brain due to his severe epilepsy that caused him to keep having seizures. They took out his hippocampus as they thought it would help him however they weren’t aware it would take away his memory
What impact did this brain injury have to his memory
Anterograde amnesia - he was unable to form new memories completely
Retrograde amnesia - he could remember a few details from before the injury like a few scenes from his childhood, facts about parents and historical events. Apart from that he could not remember anything else
How can order effects be controlled
Order effects can be controlled by Counterbalancing or Randomising the experimental conditions.
To counterbalance, the participants need to be divided equally between the conditions and complete the conditions in different orders. For example half the participants will be tested in Condition A and then Condition B, and the other half will be tested in Condition B and then Condition A.
Randomisation refers to the participants having a completely equal chance of being tested in Condition A or Condition B first. For example this will be determined by tossing a coin, or pulling a name out of a hat
What is a pilot study
A Pilot study is a small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation.
What is a peer review
Peer review is a process that takes place before a study is published to ensure the research is of high quality, contributes to the field of research and is accurately presented
What is the peer review process
-Paper sent to journal
- 2 experts in same field usually anonymous reviewers
- They judge the quality of the paper based on: experimental approach, contribution of knowledge to the field of psych and society, looking for mistakes
-review decision and give yes or no, if no recommend changes
- Sent back to original authors to make changes or publish
2 strengths of peer review
Scientific credibility - High quality findings only are published and irrelevant findings not published. Therefore, ensure research published is valid
Ensure no incorrect info published - Researchers are often less objective about their own work. As other academics and society rely on correct data it is essential to check as will add to knowledge in the field. Therefore, ensure research published is valid
2 weaknesses of peer review
Not always possible to find an expert - May be peer reviewed and
assessed by someone who may not fully understand the research. Therefore, this will not be a valid or fair review which could lead to incorrect findings being published.
Publication bias - Journals are selective and only publish findings that are significant or have contributions to society. Therefore, much research is not published which leads to limited understanding of a field
What is a normal distribution of data
Where most scores cluster around the mean, with an equal number of scores above and below the mean
A normal distribution is not skewed and is perfectly symmetrical
What is a skewed distribution of data
Scores are not distributed around the mean meaning a graph of results shows a long tail on one side or the other with 2 types:
Negative skew - long tail is on the left / data skewed to left / mean is on left of the peak
Positive skew - long tail is on the right / data skewed to right / mean is on right of the peak
What is standard deviation
Tells us how far, on average, the results are spread out around the mean. If the standard deviation is small, it tells us that the results are close to the mean.
If the standard deviation is large, then it tells us that some of the results are far away from the mean
SD= Sum of (x-mean)squared / number of data in sample minus 1
What makes a Mann-Whitney U test and when are findings significant
Ordinal data
Independent groups design
Test of difference
If observed value is equal to or less than critical findings are significant
What makes a Spearman Rho test and when are findings significant
Ordinal / Interval data
Correlational design
Test of association
If observed value is equal to or more than critical pattern in results is significant
What makes a Chi squared test and when are findings significant
Nominal data
Independent group
Test of difference
If observed value is equal to or more than critical findings are significant
What makes a Wilcoxon test and when are findings significant
Ordinal / Interval data
Matched pairs / repeated measures
Test of difference
If observed value is equal to or less than critical findings are significant
Type 1 and type 2 errors
Type 1: False positive where in research the experimental hypothesis is true but in reality the null hypothesis is true
Type 2: False negative where in research the null hypothesis is true but in reality the experimental hypothesis is true
IV and DV of cog practical
IV - related / unrelated items, kitchen / random
DV - number of objects recalled out of 20 correctly
Research design of cog practical
Independent groups: different p’pants in IV conditions
Reduces order effects
Reduces demand characteristics
Sample of cog practical
Opportunity sample of 14 16-17 year old psych students at WBS
+Quick and easy
