Criminal psychology Flashcards

Question

What is XYY syndrome

Answer 1

Genetic condition that occurs when a male has an extra Y chromosome within the 23rd pair. Many men with it don't know they have it Most boys with it will grow faster and taller than their siblings as well as some having around 10-15 lower IQ points below siblings. They will be more impulsive and more physically active. Also leads to overly aggressive and lack empathy.

Answer 2

Practical application - In knowing XYY are more physically active we could direct them sport so energy is socially acceptable. TF reduce CB in society and society safe place Gosavi - 94 convicted murderers in India and found association between CB and XYY. TF suggesting theory is valid as mutation is found within criminals. Briken - found 3 out of 13 sex offenders that were analysed for XYY had it. TF increasing validity of XYY as mutation found in sex offenders

Answer 3

Reductionist - Only considers role of nature and chromosomes not nurture like O+I criminal role models. TF too simplistic Witkin - No direct link between crim and XYY once background variables were controlled among 4591 Danish men. TF reduced validity of theory so XYY is not solely responsible. Re & Birkhoff - reviewed evidence gathered over 50 years about XYY concluding no direct link between it and crime. TF reducing validity as other factors must be responsible for CB

Answer 4

Theory suggests that behaviour is seen as criminal as society says it is by creating a label to a behaviour. Expectations that others have of someone and labelling occurs when general broad terms are used to describe members of a group.

Answer 5

Stereotypes Power structure Ascribed Treated Stigmatized Self image Marginalised Fulfil the label

Answer 6

Society creates a criminal/deviant label to a particular behaviour based on stereotypes Authorities are maintaining their power structure in society Deviant behaviour is shown by individual and label is ascribed to them.

Answer 7

Individual may be treated according to that deviant label Lead to individual becoming stigmatized within society Individual believes label and have low self image of themselves

Answer 8

Others treat them based on label. They feel marginalised within society Lead to the individual to fulfil the label and commit more criminal behaviour

Answer 9

Liebermann - found previously arrested juveniles were more likely to commit other crimes compared to non previously arrested ones. TF criminal label leads to CB increasing validity Practical application - Knowing deviant labels lead to fulfilling them we should educate society such as in education to avoid giving labels. TF reducing CB and recidivism Chambliss - found roughnecks were more likely to be labelled deviant by police and were more likely to have legal action against them where saints were not, supporting labelling is part of power structure.

Answer 10

Unscientific - difficult to experimentally research it. Hard to isolate labelling on its own and set an experiment where some p's are labelled and some aren't. TF cant establish cause and effect Reductionist - only role of nurture that society gives you a crim label doesn't consider nature e.g. Raine et al found... . TF too simplistic Unethical - unethical to give a group of P's a false label as it could damage their self esteem. TF decreasing validity

Answer 11

Prophecy is set - deviant label is given to you by other people. This can due to stereotypes people have and beliefs about the person

Answer 12

Once the label has been given other people will then behave towards the person according to that deviant label.

Answer 13

Once the label has been given to the individual and they are being treated in a deviant way, person internalises the label and begins to change their beliefs about them based on the deviant label

Answer 14

Once they have internalised the deviant label they will then behave according to the deviant label so the prophecy is fulfilled.

Answer 15

Practical applications - Knowing deviant labels lead to fulfilling them we should educate society such as in education to avoid giving labels. TF reducing CB and recidivism Rosenthal and Jacobson - students labelled as bloomers had improved IQ and thrived for 2 years compared to others in class. TF label given can change behaviour so criminal one can do as well Madon - parents who overestimated their childs alcohol use showed positive correlation to actual alcohol use a year later. TF belief about someone can change their behaviour causing them to fulfill prophecy and show criminal behaviour

Answer 16

Reductionist - only role of nurture where person internalises and fulfils criminal label and not nature like brain damage e.g. raine found... . TF too simplistic Correlational research - Only a relationship between 2 co variables of giving crim label and acting as criminal cant say one causes other as other factors could effect. TF cant establish cause and effect Unethical - unethical to give a group of P's a false label as it could damage their self esteem. TF decreasing validity

Answer 17

Psych formation aims to generate a hypothesis of whats led to someones CB and why they continue to commit a crime PF should be short and focus on key features such as personal relationships, personality and personal history PF aims to find patterns in behaviour and apply psych knowledge to explain the patterns of crime PF's often part of court process to judge mental capacity of criminal and help with type of sentencing if they reoffend.

Answer 18

Ghaderi - found a PF can be effective in predicting effective treatments for different criminals. TF reduce recidivism rates increasing validity Beneficial for treatment purposes - Looking at individual and recommending specific treatments just for them based solely on their experiences and patterns. TF increased reliability Accounts for individual differences - unique to criminals based on specific childhood traumas and relationships to help treat them. Tf increasing validity to reduce recidivism

Answer 19

Reductionist - Oversimplifies complex CB looking only at experiences and relationships not biology. TF treatments not effective as too simplistic view. Schulte - found that formulation based therapy was less effective than flooding. TF decreasing validity of PF as flooding can be used Subject to bias - one psychologist will see one part such as past relationships more important but another may think childhood trauma is. TF reduced reliability

Answer 20

1. Act in best interest of criminal 2. Maintain records appropriately 3. Quality of practice 4. Work and communicate effectively with others

Answer 21

An in depth detailed investigation conducted on an individual criminal or small group or institution of criminals. Use range of methods by triangulations to study criminal response to treatments using both quant and qual such as observations, brain scans and interviews. Often longitudinal as stay with criminal over a long period of time to see changes in offending and see if treatments reduce CB. Collect primary and secondary data such as observations of their behaviour as secondary such as crim record from police.

Answer 22

See whether AMP is more effective in producing change than no treatment for violent offenders.

Answer 23

418 male participants mean age 28.8 who were referred to AMP in South and Western Australia 73% had not completed AMP before

Answer 24

285 completed the post intervention assessment with 78 completing 2 month follow up Control ample selected from P's who were waiting list for AMP Offender attended programmes that lasted approximately 20 hours Used Novacos framework Number of measures taken before after treatment and 2 months later: Self report questionnaire measured anger (novaco anger scale) Staff also completed observational rating scale for each p'pant recorded how much anger they could see.

Answer 25

Improved understanding of anger, experimental group mean 1.18 compared to control 0.95, also found after AMP moree control over anger mean 20.7 to 22.2.

Answer 26

Offenders who were motivated to change showed greatest improvements and those who lacked it showed less or no change AMP is useful in educational sense but not overall for reducing aggression

Answer 27

Mundane realism - 418 male p'pants already referred to AMP before being sampled. TF task of doing AMP is realistic to their everyday life increasing generalisability Standardised Framework - used CBT principles based on Novacos frameworks including relaxation techniques and relapse prevention meant they all received same content. TF increasing reliability of AMP in producing change within violent offenders. Objective data - quant data found on effectiveness of AMP such as greater improvement in anger knowledge mean change 1.8 compared to control group 0.95

Answer 28

Pop validity - 418 males all referred to AMP in South western Australia meaning ethnocentric and androcentric. TF unrepresentative cant be generalised beyond. Cause and effect - Manipulation of IV (AMP) we cant be sure caused change in DV (aggression) may have been due to extraneous variables such as others in prison. TF no cause and effect decrease validity of AMP. Self report data - at end of treatment at 2 and 6 months p'pants completed self report questionnaires where they may lie to seem better to get out of prison. TF lacks validity

Answer 29

Review sexual offenders who have been treated using MPA to establish how effective MPA is in treating offenders.

Answer 30

Retrospective chart review was undertaken of 5132 sexual offenders enrolled in a private practice sexual abuse clinic. First 100 cases given MPA were selected and 100 offenders who weren't given MPA were used a s a control group matched on age and marital and employment status

Answer 31

Patients first reviewed potential side effects and signed a consent form Patients received MPA via injection averaging 250 mg every 2 weeks All patients within experimental and control group received combos of behavioural, cognitive, group and family therapy. Data was collected on re-offense rate while receiving the medication and up to 36 months after treatment starts. Re-offense was determined from patient and significant other open ended questionnaires and interviews.

Answer 32

Over 3 year period 1% of MPA patients reoffended when receiving the drug. Control group: 2 reoffended within 4.5 months and over a 3 year span 4 more reoffended so 6 reoffenders overall 6%.

Answer 33

MPA is effective to use with certain sexual offenders enrolled in community based treatment programs as it reduces sexual drive in men without side effects.

Answer 34

Ecological validity - received MPA in every day setting of sexual abuse clinic so behaviour is naturally occurring. TF findings of MPA being an effective treatment of sexual offenders Practical applications - Findings showed sexual offenders benefit from the treatment especially those with hypersexual behaviours and poor sexual impulse control. TF practitioners can target these offenders to reduce recidivism rates Objective data - retrospective chart review gathered quant data such as reoffending rates and number of victims. TF finding of 1% of MPA patients reoffended is objective increasing validity

Answer 35

Pop validity - 100 sexual offenders all male who had enrolled in a private sexual abuse clinic in America so its andro and ethnocentric. TF cant generalise and unrepresentative. Cause and effect - reported low levels of sexual arousal and reoffending as they didn't want to go back to prison so cant be sure its the manipulation of IV - drug causing change in DV. TF cant establish cause and effect decreasing validity. Participant variables - 2 groups matched on age marital and employment status but still different p'pants in each condition meaning reduced sexual drives may be due to p'pant variables. TF cause and effect cant be established

Answer 36

Reinstate the context at the time of the event Report everything Change the order in which the event is recalled Change perspective

Answer 37

Witness should recall cues from the environment and how they felt about it Taken back to place or shown images to maximise environmental and internal cues

Answer 38

Free recall - not interupted Asked to report everything as small a detail as it maybe Hopefully will maximise accurate recall No questions asked

Answer 39

Police may ask witness to recall chronologically, then backwards then from a certain point to maximise cues

Answer 40

Interviewer asks witness to recall event from different viewpoints e.g. victims perspective to maximise cues

Answer 41

Geiselman - P'pants who had watched violent films and who were then interviewed 48 hours later were more likely to remember more correct items than a standard interview. TF increasing accuracy of EWT by using cog interview so increased validity Fisher - detectives gained up to 47% more useful info from witnesses to real crimes compared to standard. TF ... Holliday - found cognitive interviews were more effective than standard interviews when interviewing children TF suggesting cog interview increases accuracy of EWT so more reliable and valid for all 3

Answer 42

Geiselman - cog interview led to slightly more incorrect items being recalled so may be less effective than standard. TF could lead to inaccurate testimonies Practical issues - Police need to be trained which takes time and money. Often if suspect in custody only have them for a limited time period. TF reducing usefulness of CI Kebbell and Wagstaff - found police officers did not use CI technique in less serious crimes as lack of time. CI may produce vast information but may not always be practical or helpful in terms of allocating the police to efficiently investigate incidents. TF decreases usefulness of CI's as tool to improve

Answer 43

Investigate how info provided to a witness after an event will influence their memory of the event.

Answer 44

45 students from america

Answer 45

45 students shown 7 short film clips of car crashes. After each clip they had to give an account of the accident and were given a questionnaire on it. All same questions apart from 1 critical question. How fast was the car going when they " hit, smashes, bumped, collided or contacted"

Answer 46

Smashed - 40.5mph Collided - 39.3mph Bumped - 38.1mph Hit - 34mph Contacted - 31.8mph

Answer 47

A change of word could significantly affect a witnesses' answer to a question either because of response bias or because of memory is altered.

Answer 48

Standardised procedure - all 45 participants received same questions, clips apart from the critical word. TF reliable Practical application - A change of word could significantly affect a witnesses' answer so decreased validity of EWT Cause and effect - Conducted in highly controlled setting of a Lab in Washington allows extraneous variables to be controlled such as the situational variable of background noise. TF manipulation of IV led to change in DV Increasing the internal validity of the EW research

Answer 49

Pop validity - 45 Americans Eco validity - highly controlled artificial setting Demand characteristics - highly controlled artificial setting lab setting so students may guess aim and changed answers. TF reducing validity

Answer 50

The UK follows the PEACE model, when conducting an ethical interview. P – Planning and preparation: Aims, objectives, required outcomes, topics of interest & some questions to be asked are noted prior. Where and when the interview will take place is decided. E – Engage and explain: Rapport is built between the interviewer and the suspect. Interviewer explains how the interview will take place. A – Account: Suspect gives description of their behaviour in the event that is being investigated. 3 steps in conversation management: 1. The suspect agenda – Suspect speak in their own words without interruption. 2. The police agenda – issues that the suspect did not cover but are of police interest can be explored here. 3. The challenge phase – Explore any inconsistencies or inaccuracies that came up in earlier stages. C – Closure: This is about bringing the interview to a good conclusion, and maintaining rapport. The aim is to avoid anxiety or anger as the interview ends. E – Evaluate: Interviews should be evaluated against the required aims to look at the material obtained.

Answer 51

Kebbell et al - found ethical interviews were more effective than others at getting a confession from sex offenders. TF suggesting ethical interview is effective at improving reliability of EWT Roberts - found using ethical interviewing techniques improved reliability of info that was gathered during interview. TF suggesting ethical interview is effective at improving reliability of EWT Ethics - As ethical interview avoids techniques such as intimidation and interegation, there is less pressure on the interviewee to give answers to void a particular situation or punishment. TF decrease psych distress increasing validity

Answer 52

Walsh & Milne - found evidence that the PEACE model is not always used fully. Found of 99 audiotapes of interviews that were analysed, there was not much evidence of planning, little rapport, little focus on points which needed proof and not enough summarising. TF suggests EI not used properly so doesn't improve reliability. Other techniques available - Srandard interview is less time consuming and expensive meaning it can be completed more frequently and easier Practical issues - specialist training required for police and takes long time to conduct. TF suspect may be held in custody for limited time and you need the info fast before they released reducing usefulness

Answer 53

What it is and A R and R M and vicarious reinforcement

Answer 54

Supported by Bandura 61 Practical applications - use of big brother schemes Farrington - 4% of 400 families accounted for 50% of convictions of all family members so family members must have O+I each other. TF suggesting CB is learned by O+I increasing validity

Answer 55

Pop validity of Bandura - small sample of 3-5 year olds from Reductionist Farrington However - findings can be explained by genetics like XYY or MAOA being passed down. TF too simplistic not accounting for everything

Answer 56

Presence of weapon decreases witnesses ability to remember details about event Attention and focus goes towards weapon and away from other aspects of scene so witnesses are unable to correctly identify a suspect in a lineup due to weapon focus 2 possible reasons for weapon focus being stress from the weapon or attention on weapon as not normal in culture

Answer 57

Loftus - showed series of slides of customer in restaurant either holding gun or chequebook. Gun version focussed more on gun so less accurate at identifying the customer. TF supporting ... Fawcett - Meta analysis found weapon focus has negative effect on memory as p's less likely to pick out suspect from lineup Steblay - reviewed 19 tests found when weapon present lower accuracy when asked to identify perpetrator

Answer 58

Pickel - unusualness of weapon rather than presence of weapon that distorted recall, items highly unusual remembered more than more usual. TF opposes idea of... and that its unusualness instead Erikson - p'pants less able to correctly identify suspect from photo of bar if holding a gun or chicken rather than empty glass. TF unusualness of object causing distorted recall Supporting research is lab setting - no natural or every day crime setting. TF cant be generalised and unrepresentative

Answer 59

1. Other witnesses - misled recollection due to differing info given 2. Leading questions 3. Media

Answer 60

Loftus et al (1978) p'pants watched a car accident at a junction where there was a stop sign. Those that were asked about ‘yield’ sign were much more likely to recall ‘yield’ sign, but those asked about stop sign correctly recalled stop sign. TF increasing validity of PEI Loftus & Pickell - did an experiment where they tried to create false childhood memories. The Ps read 4 stories and recalled what they remembered about each event. They could write that they did not remember the event if they could not recall it. They found that 29% of the participants falsely recalled that they had been lost in a shopping mall. Loftus and Palmer - concluded a change of word could significantly affect a witnesses answer due to response bias or memory altered. Tf supporting idea that PEI leads to distorted recall

Answer 61

Yuille and Cutshall’s - found there was no statistically significant difference between 2 groups where 1 received post event info an the other didn't. Loftus - found if there was time between the viewing of the film and being asked questions about what they had seen, Participants were even more open to the misinformation effect and more likely to change their memories to include the misinformation. TF its time causing memory to distort rather than PEI Reductionist - only considers factors like being told and presented with new information and doesn't consider biology like having low capacity of STM. TF too simplistic

Answer 62

Level of stress or arousal that witness is under when witnessing an event may cause witness to remember or not remember event well Yerkes-Dobson law says our performance is impaired when we are both too aroused/stressed or not aroused/stressed enough Flashbulb memories are events that have high emotion impact on us and are likely to be clear and accurate many years later

Answer 63

Clifford & Scott - witnesses to violent incidents generally recall less than witnesses to non-violent incidents. One film included a physical assault. Participants who viewed this film were less likely to identify people involved than those who had viewed the non-violent film. Clifford & Hollin - found the higher the level of violence shown, the poorer participants’ recall of an assault. TF supporting the idea increased stress levels leads to lower reliability of EWT Can explain the effects of PTSD experienced by some eyewitnesses - people with PTSD experience vivid images for prolonged periods of time due to the high stress of what they had seen. Yerkes-Dodson Law can illustrate how eyewitnesses with PTSD might not be the most accurate, high levels of stress impairing memory. TF psychological knowledge has practical benefits to society.

Answer 64

Yuille & Cutshall’s - watched highly stressful situation of IRL gunpoint robbery and didn't lead to distorted recall. TF opposing idea high stress leads to inaccurate EWT Hirst et al - investigated the flashbulb memories of the 9/11 New York terrorist attack and have shown that our memories of these events will stay accurate for a period of time, but as with other memories, the accuracy of our recall fades with time. Difficulties with researching stress and arousal - In some studies, arousal may have been caused by anxiety or fear whilst in others it may come from a state of increased alertness or attention. TF unless a common definition of ‘stress’ or ‘arousal’ is used; these ambiguous terms reduce the scientific credibility of the subject

Answer 65

EWT reliable as witnesses to real crime werent affected by post event info Witnesses viewed real life crime where crime hppened so a natural setting for crime. Manipulated IV - where they viewed crime: from building, passing car or street so field experiment Shows Post-event info not a factor influencing reliability of EWT as had little effect on answers - No stat sig difference between accuracy of 2 groups

Answer 66

EW placed in highly controlled artificial lab setting for EWT research Researcher will manipulate IV, could be if it was a leading question or not, to measure change in DV, reliability of EWT Researcher will control all extraneous variables like ensuring room isn't too hot which would impact EW thinking Aim is to establish cause and effect and can be done due to lab setting and EV's controlled Everyone will go through same procedure as highly controlled Randomly allocated

Answer 67

EW placed in a natural setting of p'pants every day life for EWT research Researcher will manipulate IV, could be if it was a leading question or not, to measure change in DV, reliability of EWT Researcher tries to but is not able to control all extraneous variables like distractions in the area which would impact EW thinking Cannot establish cause as all EV's cannot be controlled Everyone may go through different procedure as EV's not controlled Randomly allocated

Answer 68

Cause and effect Standardised procedure

Answer 69

Ecological validity Mundane realism - EWT for crime shown on TV or videos is not an everyday task

Answer 70

Ecological validity - natural environment where crime would normally take place Mundane realism - likely to be similar to what real EW's do in everyday life such as seeing crime then answering questions

Answer 71

Cause and effect Standardised procedure

Answer 72

Is eyewitness testimony too unreliable to trust?

Answer 73

EWT is an individual’s account of a crime they saw in as much detail as possible. An EWT can be used as evidence in a case/court to help prosecute a possible suspect. There is a need for EWT to be reliable/accurate to ensure the correct person is prosecuted. An example – Jean Charles de Menezes was a Brazilian man who was wrongfully identified as a terrorist by police after July 2005 London bombings + was shot dead in a tube station. Witnesses of the event were interviewed afterwards to try + establish a chain of events – This evidence was in court to determine guilt of police officers

Answer 74

Witnesses can use prior knowledge of criminal events to reconstruct the event using their schemas, leading a testimony to be inaccurate. This could be why witnesses said Jean Charles jumped the barrier and was wearing black when he was not as they used prior knowledge of someone fleeing the police

Answer 75

+ Bartlett found p’s reconstructed a story from another culture using leading to make it shorter + use chunks of T/F suggesting schema can distort recall and that EWT may be too unreliable to trust - However, Bartlett’s research was unscientific, as he asked p’s over a year later in an unstandardised way to recall the story, T/F suggesting recall may have been distorted but EWT is reliable enough to trust

Answer 76

The presence of a weapon requires eyewitness to have high levels of stress which causes their recall to distort as they are paying attention to the weapon. This could be why witnesses said that Jean Charles Menezes ran from police and was Asian when he was not as they were too focussed on the weapon

Answer 77

Steblay - found when reviewing 19 studies when a weapon was present there was a lack of accuracy when asked to identify the perpetrator. T/F supporting idea that presence of weapon decreases the witness’ ability to remember details about the event However Pickel found it was the unusualness of the weapon rather than the presence of a weapon that distorted recall. High unusualness item was remembered better than low unusualness. T/F opposing idea that presence of weapon distorts recall and it’s the unusualness not presence of it

Answer 78

Post-event info such as leading Qs could alter the eyewitness’ memory for the original event, leading to the EWT being inaccurate. This could be why witnesses said they heard "armed police" as in interviewing they were asked "they shouted armed police didn't they?" distorting recall

Answer 79

Loftus & Palmer found p’s altered their mean estimates of speed depending on verb used to describe the crash T/F suggesting leading Qs could alter memory for event so EWT too unreliable to trust However Yuille & Cutshall found that leading Qs did not affect the EWT in a naturally occurring case of a gun robbery. T/F suggesting recall may not be distorted and EWT is reliable enough to trust

Answer 80

A jury is a group of 12 people selected to hear evidence and decide if someone is guilty or not of a crime Pre-trial publicity is exposure of media coverage about a case / criminal before it goes to trial which could influence the public opinion and thus fairness of trial It can be found in social media, newspapers or TV reports 2 types are factual information including incriminating info about D or case and emotional publicity which is info that will arouse negative emotion

Answer 81

Steblay - meta analysis of 44 tests and found p'pants exposed to negative pre-trial publicity were more likely to judge D as guilty (59%) than those with no pre-trial publicity (45%). TF supporting impact of PTP Moran and Cutler - surveyed jurors and found the more prior knowledge they had about the case, the more likely they were to return a guilty verdict. TF supporting PTP Honess et al - found highly emotional material is more likely to be remembered than other types of information

Answer 82

Weaknesses are about the studies done to support PTP Mock jurors - Lacks mundane realism as not real case so know not gonna impact someone life Lab studies - Lack eco validity as not in a court setting so pressure and emotional response not representative Student samples - lack population validity

Answer 83

Gender - males are more likely to be convicted of a crime than females. Hormones like testosterone that males have higher levels of are linked to aggression so jury thinks its more likely they did the crime Attractiveness - the more attractive D is perceived the less likely they are to be found guilty of the crime. May be due to schemas like attractive heroes and ugly villains in Disney like Cinderella Race - race bias suggests that if jury are same race as D they will show in-group solidarity and give a not guilty verdict

Answer 84

+ Ahola et al: in mock trials female D's received shorter sentences in shorter crime including murder - Cruse and Leigh: Mock trial girl was more likely to be found guilty by jury as doubly deviant of breaking law and going against social norms of female

Answer 85

+ Asch: Suggests 'Halo effect' - when people know one good thing about a person a 'halo' of pleasant characteristics is imagined - Mock trials: Lack mundane realism. Link TF to attractiveness

Answer 86

+ Bradbury and Williams: black D's less likely to be found guilty by juries of higher proportion black jurors and more likely to be found guilty by those with white and Hispanic -

Answer 87

To investigate the extent to which the perceived attractiveness (good of an offender can impact the sentence given by a jury.

Answer 88

IV: Attractiveness - Boxer(unattractive) Model(Attractive) DV: Sentence – years

Answer 89

Opportunity sample of 37 year 13 psychology students from WBS. 16 in the average looking condition and 21 in the good looking condition.

Answer 90

37 psychology students were all emailed a scenario about William Wilson and his back story & drug handling and addiction to drugs. He was portrayed as a boxer with deformities in the average looking condition and in the good looking condition, he was portrayed as an attractive model. Each student individually sent back the sentence they would give to William, and the results were analysed to see if attractiveness had an impact on sentencing.

Answer 91

The observed value of 122 is greater than the critical value of 727 meaning the null can be accepted and the alternative hypothesis can be rejected as the findings are not significant so any observed differences are due to chance.

Answer 92

Attractiveness does have an effect on sentencing of a heroin addict, however more attractive offenders will be sentenced longer than the average looking offender which opposes the hypothesis.

Answer 93

Pop validity - Used 37 students from West Bridgford school ages 17–18. This could mean they share a similar demographic background making the sample ethnocentric. TF in finding that the more attractive the defendant increases number of years given cannot be generalised beyond West Bridgford school and students Mundane realism - Participants were given a description of the attractive model or average looking boxer when they had to decide how many years to sentence them to. However, this is not realistic for a natural jury setting as they would see the offender in front of them. TF the findings that being more attractive increased the number of years is not representative and cannot be generalised to everyday jury sentencing

Answer 94

Right to withdraw - In the email that the participants received stated that the context of the email will contain a description of a crime involving heroin and if they do not wish to take part, they can ignore the email thus withdrawing from the study. TF ethical guideline of right to withdraw was not breached, so the study can be deemed as ethical. Standardised Procedure - All participants received the same email including the description of the crime and the instructions on what they needed to reply (number of years they’d sentence the offender to). TF study can be replicated to produce similar findings thus increasing reliability.