Learning & Ethology Flashcards
Learning
Ways in which we acquire new behavior
Habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus
Dishabituation
When we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again; Restoration to full strength of a response that has become weakened by habituation
Associated Learning
Learns an association between 2 stimuli or between behavior and response (done through operant or classical conditioning)
Classical Conditioning
Respondent Conditioning
Learning the connection between different events.
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone
Operant Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning
Learning the relationship between voluntary behavior and their consequences to alter frequency of behaviors
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Classical Conditioning:
Response to a stimulus that is innate or reflexive (natural response)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Classical Conditioning:
Originally a neutral stimulus but after becoming associated or paired with an unconditioned stimulus will eventually trigger a reflexive response; Learned Stimulus
Extinction
Removal of a response to a stimulus; behavior that used to bring a reward no longer does
Repeatedly presenting the Conditioned stimulus (CS) without the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Spontaneous Recovery
After a period of time, producing a weak conditioned response (CR) after an extinction event
Generalization
Stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces the same conditioned response (CR)
Discrimination
Learning to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Neutral Stimuli
A stimulus that does not elicit any observable behavior other than focusing from an organism.
Punishment
Operant Conditioning:
Reduces behavior
+ Punishment = adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease behavior
- Punishment = removing reward for doing bad to decrease behavior
Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning:
Increases Behavior
+ Reinforcement = adding reward or incentive to increase behavior
- Reinforcement = removing something unpleasant to increase beavior
Escape
Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement (behavior removes something undesirable)
Avoidance
Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement (when given a warning that an aversive stimulus will occur soon, the organism will avoid the stimulus)
Shaping
Differential Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning:
Rewarding increasingly specific behaviors (Sometimes while extinguishing others)
Latent Learning
Leaning without reward; spontaneously demonstrated
Problem Solving
- Step back
- Observe
- Decisive active about challenge
Preparedness
Most able to learn behaviors that coincide with natural behaviors
Instinctual Drift
Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors; Reverting to a species specific behavior
Observational Learning
Leaning new behavior or gaining new information by watching others
Mirror Neurons
Related to empathy and assist in observational learning
Encoding
Putting new information into memory
Automatic Processing
Information gained without effort
Controlled Processing
Active memorization
Self-Reference Effect
Recall information best when put into context of our own lives
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information (allowing it to stay in short term memory for a longer amount of time)
Method of Loci
Associating items with location along a route (places that you are familiar with)
Peg-Word
Associate items that rhyme or resemble numbers
Chunking
In a large list, grouping items together with related meanings
Sensory Memory
< 1 second
Iconic (visual) and Echoic (auditory)
Fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
Short Term Memory
< 1 minute (about 20 seconds)
Can remember about 7 (+/- 2) items
Encodes phonology (sounds of words)
This is the link between our sensory memory and long term memory
Working Memory
Few pieces of information to manipulate
Long Term Memory
Lifetime (but can be brief as well)
Recall information (experiences, knowledge, and skills) on demand
Encodes meaning of verbal material
Explicit Memory
Conscious memories
Implicit Memory
Unconscious skills / conditioned responses
Declarative Memory
Facts and events; Remembering explicit information
Procedural Memory
Skills and tasks; Remembering how to do things
Episodic Memory
Events and experiences (that you have personally experienced)
Semantic Memory
Facts and concepts; Remembering general knowledge
Retrieval
Recovering the stored information in memory at a later time
Relearning (Spacing Effect)
More time between session of relearning makes information harder to remember / recall
Context Effects
Remembering better by being in the same location where the information was learned
State Dependent Learning
Being in the same state (psychological or physical) of mind / conditions makes it easier to recall information
Serial Position Effect
Remembering the beginning and end of lists better than the middle
Neuroplasticity
Ability to make rapid neural connections in response to stimuli (this decreases with age)
Synaptic Pruning
Weak connections broken and strong ones bolstered
The process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions.
Long Term Potentiation
Strengthen synapses between nerves cells (connections) and increase receptor density in neurotransmitters
Alzheimers
Neurofibril tangles and plaques`create dementia (memory loss)
Korsakoff Syndrome
Thiamine deficiency in brain causes memory loss
Confabulation
Creating vivid fabricated memories
Agnosia
Loss of ability to recognize objects, people or sound
Interference
Retrieval error due to existence of similar information
Proactive Interference (Inhibition)
Old information interferes with new learning
Retroactive Interference (Inhibition)
New information causes forgetting of old information
Misinformation Effect
Remembering wrong information and details
Source Amnesia
Confusion between semantic (facts and concepts) and episodic (events and experiences) memory
Motivation
Purpose / driving force behind our actions
Extrinsic Motivation
Purpose for actions coming from outside oneself
Intrinsic Motivation
Purpose for actions coming from within oneself
Instinct Theory
People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionary programmed instincts (innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli)
Arousal Theory
People perform behaviors / actions to maintain an optimal level of arousal (psychological / physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli)
Yerkes Dodson Law
The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
- Weak performance and Low arousal = highly cognitive tasks
- Weak performance and High arousal = physical endurance and stamina
- Strong performance and Medium arousal = Optimal
Drive Reduction Theory
Theory of Motivation
Internal states of tension (innate physiological / biological need for something) that act as motivation to activate goal based behaviors to eliminate uncomfortable states
Primary = food, water, warmth, etc… motivate bodily processes for homeostasis
Secondary = emotional (not biological processes)
**Reinforcement occurs whenever a biological drive is reduced
Need Based Theory
- Abraham Maslow
- Self actualization (fullest potential)
- Esteem (respect)
- Love/ Belonging (relationships)
- Safety (security)
- Physiological (basic needs - food, water, etc…)
The lowest needs must be met before you can move up the pyramid and this determines your motivation for behavior
Self Determination Theory
Behavior is motivated by:
- Autonomy; the need to be in control of ones actions and ideas;
- The competence to complete and excel at difficult tasks
- Relatedness; to feel accepted and wanted
Incentive Theory
Behavior is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments
Expectancy - Value Theory
Motivation for behavior results from individual expectations of success in reaching the goal And degree to which they value succeeding at said goal
Opponent Process Theory
Repeatedly taking drugs will change the body’s physiology resulting in tolerance (decrease in perceived drug effects over time)
Functionalist
Focusing on how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment
Ethology
Study animals in their natural environment (not in a lab)
Reflex
Unlearned response that is elicited by a specific stimulus
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Classical Conditioning:
A Natural response reflexively elicited by an unconditional stimulus
Conditioned Response (CR)
Classical Conditioning:
Response that, after conditioning, is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; a Learned response
Forward Conditioning
The Unonditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented after the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Acquistion
Describes the period during which an organism is learning the association of a stimuli
Backward Conditioning
Presenting the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS); generally unsuccessful
Second - Order Conditioning
Neutral stimulus is paired with a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) not an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) like it usually is
Stage 1: Regular classic conditioning
Stage 2: (builds on stage 1) New Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented just before the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is presented
Subsequent stages will build on the stage right before it
Sensory Preconditioning
2 Neutral stimuli are paired together and then one of the neutral stimuli is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Stage 1: Pair 2 Neutral stimuli
Stage 2: Pair the neutral stimuli with the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS)
Contingency Explanation of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a matter of learning signals for the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS)
The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) will become paired / associated with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) because the CS is a good signal (has informative value) and a good predictor of the UCS
Blocking Explanation of Classical Conditioning
Condition is the association between the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS); It may be impaired if during the condition the process of CS (A) is presented with a 2nd CS (B) that has already been associated with the UCS because no additional, useful information can be learned from the CS (A)
Law of Effect
If a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future
Discriminative Stimulus (SD)
Stimulus condition or situation that indicates that the organism’s behavior will have a consequence
Partial Reinforcement Effect
Response is only reinforced part of the time; This method is more resistant to extinction
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Organisms receives reinforcement after a fixed number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
Organism receives reinforcement after a varying number of responses
(Reinforcement will average out at a specific #)
- *Very Resistant (VR) to extinction
- *Very Rapid (VR) Response rate
Fixed Interval (FI)
Organism will be reinforced on the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI)
Organism will be reinforced for the first response made after a variable amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement
(There is an average time interval period)
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF)
Reinforcement after every correct response / behavior
Flooding
Exposure Therapy
Behavior Therapy:
Person experiences an anxiety producing stimulus (feared object)
Implosion
Behavior Therapy:
Client imagines the fearful situation
Systematic Desensitization
Behavior Therapy:
Hierarchy of anxiety - producing situations coupled with the use of relaxation techniques
Counter Conditioning
Behavior Therapy:
During Desensitization an Individual cannot experience contradictory emotions (anxiety and relaxation) simultaneously
Behavioral Contract
Behavior Therapy:
Negotiated agreement between two parities that explicitly states the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts
Useful in resolving interpersonal conflicts
Time-Out
Behavior Therapy:
Removing the client from the reinforcing situation before reinforcement can be received for the undesirable behavior; therefore the behavior will not be reinforced and will eventually cease
Token Economies
Behavior Therapy:
“Tokens” are given to desirable behaviors that are taken away for various undesirable behaviors; These tokens can later be exchanged by the client for a wide array of rewards / privileges
Premack Principle
Behavior Therapy:
More preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity
Contingency Management
General name for behavior therapies that attempt to change the client’s behavior by altering the consequences of the behavior
Insight
Perception of the inner relationships between factors that are essential to solving a problem
Cognitive Map
Mental representation of a physical space
Biological Constraints
Different species that have different inborn predispositions to learn different things in different ways
Preparedness
Innate, in-born tendency to associate certain stimuli with certain consequences
Fixed - Action patterns (FAP)
Stereotyped behavior sequence that does not have to be learned by the animal (it is species - typical)
This is an automatic response; even if the stimulus is removed in the middle of the behavioral sequence the animal will continue to perform the action
Sign Stimuli
Features of a stimulus that are sufficient to bring about a particular Fixed Action Pattern
Releasers
Stimuli that function as signals from one animal to another; particular environmental stimulus that sets off a specific behavior
Supernormal Stimulus
Stimulus that is more effective at triggering the Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) than the actual stimulus found in nature
Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM)
Mechanism in the organisms nervous system that serves to connect the stimulus with the right response
Reproductive Isolating Mechanism
Prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of closely related species; Provides a way for species to identify other of it’s own species
Elaborative Rehearsal
Organizing the material and associating it with information you already have in long term memory
Recall
Independently reproducing the information that you have previously been exposed to
Recognition
Realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before
Generation - Recognition Model
Recall task taps the same basic process of accessing information in memory as does a recognition task, but a recall task requires an additional step (generating info.)
*Explains why Recognizing is easier than Recalling
Stage Theory of Memory
There are several different memory system and each system has a different function; Memories will enter the various systems in a specific order
Storage
Retaining Information in memory over time
Recency Effect
Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best
Primacy Effect
Words presented at the beginning of the list are remembered best
Clustering
When asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging
Semantic Verification Task
Asked to indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false
Response Latency
Time it takes the subject to respond
Spreading Activation Model
Semantic Memory organized into a map of interconnected concepts; The shorter the distance between 2 words, the closer the words are related in the semantic memory
Level (Depth) of Processing Theory
What determines how long you will remember material is not what memory system it gets into (suggesting there is only one memory system) but the way in which you process the material
Physical Processing of Information
Visual - focusing on the appearance, size and shape of the information
Acoustical Processing of Information
Auditory - focusing on the sound combinations words have
Semantic Processing of Information
Focusing on the meaning of the word
Paivio’s Dual-Code Hypothesis
Information can be stored or encoded in 2 ways: Visually (Concrete info) and Verbally (Abstract info.)
Schema
Conceptual frameworks we use to organize our knowledge
Decay Theory
Information in long term memory that is not used or rehearsed will eventually be forgotten
Inhibition Theory
Forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and the later attempted recall
Encoding Specificity
Recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding
Zeigarnik Effect
Tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks
