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Psych for the MCAT :) > Learning & Ethology > Flashcards

Learning & Ethology Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

Ways in which we acquire new behavior

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2
Q

Habituation

A

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus

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3
Q

Dishabituation

A

When we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again; Restoration to full strength of a response that has become weakened by habituation

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4
Q

Associated Learning

A

Learns an association between 2 stimuli or between behavior and response (done through operant or classical conditioning)

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5
Q

Classical Conditioning

Respondent Conditioning

A

Learning the connection between different events.

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone

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6
Q

Operant Conditioning

Instrumental Conditioning

A

Learning the relationship between voluntary behavior and their consequences to alter frequency of behaviors

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7
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

Classical Conditioning:

Response to a stimulus that is innate or reflexive (natural response)

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8
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

Classical Conditioning:
Originally a neutral stimulus but after becoming associated or paired with an unconditioned stimulus will eventually trigger a reflexive response; Learned Stimulus

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9
Q

Extinction

A

Removal of a response to a stimulus; behavior that used to bring a reward no longer does

Repeatedly presenting the Conditioned stimulus (CS) without the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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10
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

After a period of time, producing a weak conditioned response (CR) after an extinction event

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11
Q

Generalization

A

Stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces the same conditioned response (CR)

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12
Q

Discrimination

A

Learning to distinguish between two similar stimuli

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13
Q

Neutral Stimuli

A

A stimulus that does not elicit any observable behavior other than focusing from an organism.

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14
Q

Punishment

A

Operant Conditioning:
Reduces behavior

+ Punishment = adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease behavior
- Punishment = removing reward for doing bad to decrease behavior

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15
Q

Reinforcement

A

Operant Conditioning:
Increases Behavior

+ Reinforcement = adding reward or incentive to increase behavior
- Reinforcement = removing something unpleasant to increase beavior

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16
Q

Escape

A 
Operant Conditioning: 
Negative Reinforcement (behavior removes something undesirable)
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17
Q

Avoidance

A 
Operant Conditioning: 
Negative Reinforcement (when given a warning that an aversive stimulus will occur soon, the organism will avoid the stimulus)
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18
Q

Shaping

Differential Reinforcement

A

Operant Conditioning:

Rewarding increasingly specific behaviors (Sometimes while extinguishing others)

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19
Q

Latent Learning

A

Leaning without reward; spontaneously demonstrated

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20
Q

Problem Solving

A
  • Step back
  • Observe
  • Decisive active about challenge
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21
Q

Preparedness

A

Most able to learn behaviors that coincide with natural behaviors

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22
Q

Instinctual Drift

A

Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors; Reverting to a species specific behavior

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23
Q

Observational Learning

A

Leaning new behavior or gaining new information by watching others

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24
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Related to empathy and assist in observational learning

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25
Q

Encoding

A

Putting new information into memory

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26
Q

Automatic Processing

A

Information gained without effort

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27
Q

Controlled Processing

A

Active memorization

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28
Q

Self-Reference Effect

A

Recall information best when put into context of our own lives

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29
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Repetition of a piece of information (allowing it to stay in short term memory for a longer amount of time)

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30
Q

Method of Loci

A

Associating items with location along a route (places that you are familiar with)

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31
Q

Peg-Word

A

Associate items that rhyme or resemble numbers

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32
Q

Chunking

A

In a large list, grouping items together with related meanings

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33
Q

Sensory Memory

A

< 1 second
Iconic (visual) and Echoic (auditory)
Fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli

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34
Q

Short Term Memory

A

< 1 minute (about 20 seconds)
Can remember about 7 (+/- 2) items
Encodes phonology (sounds of words)
This is the link between our sensory memory and long term memory

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35
Q

Working Memory

A

Few pieces of information to manipulate

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36
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Lifetime (but can be brief as well)
Recall information (experiences, knowledge, and skills) on demand
Encodes meaning of verbal material

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37
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Conscious memories

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38
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Unconscious skills / conditioned responses

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39
Q

Declarative Memory

A

Facts and events; Remembering explicit information

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40
Q

Procedural Memory

A

Skills and tasks; Remembering how to do things

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41
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Events and experiences (that you have personally experienced)

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42
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Facts and concepts; Remembering general knowledge

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43
Q

Retrieval

A

Recovering the stored information in memory at a later time

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44
Q

Relearning (Spacing Effect)

A

More time between session of relearning makes information harder to remember / recall

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45
Q

Context Effects

A

Remembering better by being in the same location where the information was learned

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46
Q

State Dependent Learning

A

Being in the same state (psychological or physical) of mind / conditions makes it easier to recall information

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47
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

Remembering the beginning and end of lists better than the middle

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48
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

Ability to make rapid neural connections in response to stimuli (this decreases with age)

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49
Q

Synaptic Pruning

A

Weak connections broken and strong ones bolstered
The process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions.

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50
Q

Long Term Potentiation

A

Strengthen synapses between nerves cells (connections) and increase receptor density in neurotransmitters

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51
Q

Alzheimers

A

Neurofibril tangles and plaques`create dementia (memory loss)

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52
Q

Korsakoff Syndrome

A

Thiamine deficiency in brain causes memory loss

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53
Q

Confabulation

A

Creating vivid fabricated memories

54
Q

Agnosia

A

Loss of ability to recognize objects, people or sound

55
Q

Interference

A

Retrieval error due to existence of similar information

56
Q

Proactive Interference (Inhibition)

A

Old information interferes with new learning

57
Q

Retroactive Interference (Inhibition)

A

New information causes forgetting of old information

58
Q

Misinformation Effect

A

Remembering wrong information and details

59
Q

Source Amnesia

A

Confusion between semantic (facts and concepts) and episodic (events and experiences) memory

60
Q

Motivation

A

Purpose / driving force behind our actions

61
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

Purpose for actions coming from outside oneself

62
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

Purpose for actions coming from within oneself

63
Q

Instinct Theory

A

People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionary programmed instincts (innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli)

64
Q

Arousal Theory

A

People perform behaviors / actions to maintain an optimal level of arousal (psychological / physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli)

65
Q

Yerkes Dodson Law

A

The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point

  • Weak performance and Low arousal = highly cognitive tasks
  • Weak performance and High arousal = physical endurance and stamina
  • Strong performance and Medium arousal = Optimal
66
Q

Drive Reduction Theory

Theory of Motivation

A

Internal states of tension (innate physiological / biological need for something) that act as motivation to activate goal based behaviors to eliminate uncomfortable states

Primary = food, water, warmth, etc… motivate bodily processes for homeostasis

Secondary = emotional (not biological processes)

**Reinforcement occurs whenever a biological drive is reduced

67
Q

Need Based Theory

- Abraham Maslow

A
  • Self actualization (fullest potential)
  • Esteem (respect)
  • Love/ Belonging (relationships)
  • Safety (security)
  • Physiological (basic needs - food, water, etc…)

The lowest needs must be met before you can move up the pyramid and this determines your motivation for behavior

68
Q

Self Determination Theory

A

Behavior is motivated by:

  • Autonomy; the need to be in control of ones actions and ideas;
  • The competence to complete and excel at difficult tasks
  • Relatedness; to feel accepted and wanted
69
Q

Incentive Theory

A

Behavior is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

70
Q

Expectancy - Value Theory

A

Motivation for behavior results from individual expectations of success in reaching the goal And degree to which they value succeeding at said goal

71
Q

Opponent Process Theory

A

Repeatedly taking drugs will change the body’s physiology resulting in tolerance (decrease in perceived drug effects over time)

72
Q

Functionalist

A

Focusing on how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment

73
Q

Ethology

A

Study animals in their natural environment (not in a lab)

74
Q

Reflex

A

Unlearned response that is elicited by a specific stimulus

75
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

Classical Conditioning:

A Natural response reflexively elicited by an unconditional stimulus

76
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

Classical Conditioning:

Response that, after conditioning, is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; a Learned response

77
Q

Forward Conditioning

A

The Unonditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented after the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

78
Q

Acquistion

A

Describes the period during which an organism is learning the association of a stimuli

79
Q

Backward Conditioning

A

Presenting the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS); generally unsuccessful

80
Q

Second - Order Conditioning

A

Neutral stimulus is paired with a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) not an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) like it usually is

Stage 1: Regular classic conditioning

Stage 2: (builds on stage 1) New Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented just before the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is presented

Subsequent stages will build on the stage right before it

81
Q

Sensory Preconditioning

A

2 Neutral stimuli are paired together and then one of the neutral stimuli is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stage 1: Pair 2 Neutral stimuli

Stage 2: Pair the neutral stimuli with the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS)

82
Q

Contingency Explanation of Classical Conditioning

A

Classical conditioning is a matter of learning signals for the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS)

The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) will become paired / associated with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) because the CS is a good signal (has informative value) and a good predictor of the UCS

83
Q

Blocking Explanation of Classical Conditioning

A

Condition is the association between the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS); It may be impaired if during the condition the process of CS (A) is presented with a 2nd CS (B) that has already been associated with the UCS because no additional, useful information can be learned from the CS (A)

84
Q

Law of Effect

A

If a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future

85
Q

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

A

Stimulus condition or situation that indicates that the organism’s behavior will have a consequence

86
Q

Partial Reinforcement Effect

A

Response is only reinforced part of the time; This method is more resistant to extinction

87
Q

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A

Organisms receives reinforcement after a fixed number of responses

88
Q

Variable Ratio (VR)

A

Organism receives reinforcement after a varying number of responses

(Reinforcement will average out at a specific #)

  • *Very Resistant (VR) to extinction
  • *Very Rapid (VR) Response rate
89
Q

Fixed Interval (FI)

A

Organism will be reinforced on the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement

90
Q

Variable Interval (VI)

A

Organism will be reinforced for the first response made after a variable amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement

(There is an average time interval period)

91
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF)

A

Reinforcement after every correct response / behavior

92
Q

Flooding

Exposure Therapy

A

Behavior Therapy:

Person experiences an anxiety producing stimulus (feared object)

93
Q

Implosion

A

Behavior Therapy:

Client imagines the fearful situation

94
Q

Systematic Desensitization

A

Behavior Therapy:

Hierarchy of anxiety - producing situations coupled with the use of relaxation techniques

95
Q

Counter Conditioning

A

Behavior Therapy:

During Desensitization an Individual cannot experience contradictory emotions (anxiety and relaxation) simultaneously

96
Q

Behavioral Contract

A

Behavior Therapy:

Negotiated agreement between two parities that explicitly states the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts

Useful in resolving interpersonal conflicts

97
Q

Time-Out

A

Behavior Therapy:

Removing the client from the reinforcing situation before reinforcement can be received for the undesirable behavior; therefore the behavior will not be reinforced and will eventually cease

98
Q

Token Economies

A

Behavior Therapy:

“Tokens” are given to desirable behaviors that are taken away for various undesirable behaviors; These tokens can later be exchanged by the client for a wide array of rewards / privileges

99
Q

Premack Principle

A

Behavior Therapy:

More preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

100
Q

Contingency Management

A

General name for behavior therapies that attempt to change the client’s behavior by altering the consequences of the behavior

101
Q

Insight

A

Perception of the inner relationships between factors that are essential to solving a problem

102
Q

Cognitive Map

A

Mental representation of a physical space

103
Q

Biological Constraints

A

Different species that have different inborn predispositions to learn different things in different ways

104
Q

Preparedness

A

Innate, in-born tendency to associate certain stimuli with certain consequences

105
Q

Fixed - Action patterns (FAP)

A

Stereotyped behavior sequence that does not have to be learned by the animal (it is species - typical)

This is an automatic response; even if the stimulus is removed in the middle of the behavioral sequence the animal will continue to perform the action

106
Q

Sign Stimuli

A

Features of a stimulus that are sufficient to bring about a particular Fixed Action Pattern

107
Q

Releasers

A

Stimuli that function as signals from one animal to another; particular environmental stimulus that sets off a specific behavior

108
Q

Supernormal Stimulus

A

Stimulus that is more effective at triggering the Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) than the actual stimulus found in nature

109
Q

Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM)

A

Mechanism in the organisms nervous system that serves to connect the stimulus with the right response

110
Q

Reproductive Isolating Mechanism

A

Prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of closely related species; Provides a way for species to identify other of it’s own species

111
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Organizing the material and associating it with information you already have in long term memory

112
Q

Recall

A

Independently reproducing the information that you have previously been exposed to

113
Q

Recognition

A

Realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before

114
Q

Generation - Recognition Model

A

Recall task taps the same basic process of accessing information in memory as does a recognition task, but a recall task requires an additional step (generating info.)

*Explains why Recognizing is easier than Recalling

115
Q

Stage Theory of Memory

A

There are several different memory system and each system has a different function; Memories will enter the various systems in a specific order

116
Q

Storage

A

Retaining Information in memory over time

117
Q

Recency Effect

A

Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best

118
Q

Primacy Effect

A

Words presented at the beginning of the list are remembered best

119
Q

Clustering

A

When asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging

120
Q

Semantic Verification Task

A

Asked to indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false

121
Q

Response Latency

A

Time it takes the subject to respond

122
Q

Spreading Activation Model

A

Semantic Memory organized into a map of interconnected concepts; The shorter the distance between 2 words, the closer the words are related in the semantic memory

123
Q

Level (Depth) of Processing Theory

A

What determines how long you will remember material is not what memory system it gets into (suggesting there is only one memory system) but the way in which you process the material

124
Q

Physical Processing of Information

A

Visual - focusing on the appearance, size and shape of the information

125
Q

Acoustical Processing of Information

A

Auditory - focusing on the sound combinations words have

126
Q

Semantic Processing of Information

A

Focusing on the meaning of the word

127
Q

Paivio’s Dual-Code Hypothesis

A

Information can be stored or encoded in 2 ways: Visually (Concrete info) and Verbally (Abstract info.)

128
Q

Schema

A

Conceptual frameworks we use to organize our knowledge

129
Q

Decay Theory

A

Information in long term memory that is not used or rehearsed will eventually be forgotten

130
Q

Inhibition Theory

A

Forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and the later attempted recall

131
Q

Encoding Specificity

A

Recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding

132
Q

Zeigarnik Effect

A

Tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks

Psych for the MCAT :) (8 decks)

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