Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
Describes and explain changes in human behavior over time
British Empiricist School of Thought
Believe that all knowledge is gained through experience
Tabula Rasa
Child’s mind at birth is considered a blank slate ; without predetermined tendencies
Functionalist System of Thought
Studies how the mind functions to help the individual adapt to the environment
Psychodynamic Orientation
Stressed the roles of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality
Cognitive Structuralists
Emphasize the thinking ability of people during development
Cross-Sectional Studies
Compare groups of subjects at different ages
Longitudinal Studies
Compare specific groups of people over an extended period of time
Sequential Cohort Studies
Several groups of different ages are studied over several years
Case Study (Clinical Method)
Look at facts about a particular person and their environment in order to gain a better perspective
Nature / Nurture Controversy
Nature - human capabilities are innate (present at birth) and differences are largely due to genetics
Nurture - human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience
**Capabilities are actually a result of a dynamic interaction between nature and nurture
Family Studies
Studying one family to determine degree of genetic influence
Monozygotic Twin Studies
Twins are genetically identical (sharing 100% of their genes)
Dizygotic Twin Studies
Twins are genetically similar - share approximately 50% of their genes
Adoption Studies
Compare the similarities between the biological parents and the adopted child to similarities between the adoptive parents and the adopted child
Down’s Syndrome
Genetic anomaly where an individual has an extra 21st chromosome - results in varying levels of mental retardation
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Degenerative disease of the nervous system - the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine (found in milk and other foods) is lacking
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
In males - a possession of an extra X chromosome
They have an XXY configuration - they are often steril and have mental retardation
Turner’s Syndrome
Females with only one X chromosome - they fail to develop secondary sex characteristics and have physical abnormalities
Zygote
The sperm cells fertilizes the egg cell and forms a single cell
Germinal Period
Prenatal stage lasting two weeks after time of conception where the fertilized egg travels down the Fallopian tube and is implanted into the uterine wall
Embryonic Period
The 8 weeks following the Germinal Period - embryo increases in size (2 million %); begins to look human and first movements will occur
Fetal Period
Begins in the third month - fetus’ brain has measurable electrical activity & the baby grows in size
Prenatal Development Stages (in order)
- Zygote
- Germinal Period
- Embryonic Period
- Fetal Period
Rooting
Infant reflex where they turn their heads in the direction of the stimuli applied to their cheek
Moro
Infant reflex where they react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, bringing their arms back to their body and then hugging themselves
Babinski
Infant reflect where toes automatically spread apart when the soles of their feet are stimulated
Grasping
Infant reflex where they automatically close their fingers around objects that are placed in their hands
Schema
Organized patterns of behavior and / or thought
Concept, Behavior or Sequence of events
Principle of Adaptation
- (Jean Piaget)
To process new information
- Assimilation - process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schema
- Accommodation - modify existing schema to adapt to this new information
Stages of Cognitive Development
- (Jean Piaget)
- Sensorimotor (infancy)
- Preoperational (2-7 yrs)
- Concrete Operations (7-11 yrs)
- Formal Operational (11+ yrs)
Sensorimotor Stage
- Primary (motions concerned with body) and Secondary (manipulation objects in the environment) repetitive reactions (circular movements) help to coordinate different aspects of the environment.
- Object Permanence develops - objects still exist even when they are out of view
Preoperational Stage
- Child has not mastered conservation
- Egocentrism - focus on themselves and do not understand perspective of others
- Centration - focus on one part of a phenomena
- Beginning of representational thought
- Symbolic thinking - pretend, make believe and imagine
Concrete Operational Stage
- Conservation - physical properties of matter remain the same even if appearance may change
- Able to take the perspective of others into account
Formal Operations Stage
Person has the ability to think logically about abstract thoughts / ideas
Lev Vygotsky’s Perspective on Children
The engine driving the cognitive development is the child’s internalization of interpersonal and cultural rules and processes (rules, symbols, language, etc…)
Phonology (Phonemes)
Actual sound stem of language; smallest sound unit of language
Categorical Perception
Distinguishing between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning
Semantics
Learning the meaning of words and sentences
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences; grammatical arrangement of words
Pragmatics
Consists of the actual efficient use of language, including recognizing inflections and being able to use them
Transformational Grammar / Rules
Changes in word order that differ with meaning; Changing one structure into another
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Innate capacity for language acquisition that is triggered by exposure to language
Built in advanced knowledge of rule structures in language
Libido
Sex drive or Life drive that is present at birth
Fixation
When a child is overindulge or overly frustrated during a stage of development which when creates a personality pattern based on the stage
Oedipal Complex
Male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with his mother and fears that the father will castrate him. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother.
Result: identify’s with the father establishing his sexual identity and internalizing moral values
Electra Complex
Female children develop Penis Envy and ultimately identify with the mother to establish sexual identity
Stages of Psychosexual Development
- (Sigmund Freud)
- Oral (infancy)
- Anal (1-3 yrs)
- Phallic (3-5 yrs)
- Latency (5-13 yrs)
- Genital (13+ yrs)
Oral Stage
Libidinal energy centered on the mouth (biting / sucking)
Fixation: can lead to excessive dependency
Anal Stage
Toilet training occurs during this time: gratification in eliminating / retaining waste
Fixation: can lead to excessive orderliness (anal retentive) or messiness
Phallic Stage
Oedipal complex or Electra complex is resolved
Latency Stage
Libido is largely sublimated during this stage
Genital Stage
If previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relations
Fixation: Fetishes ; homosexual relations
Psychosocial Theory
- Erik Erickson
Development is a sequence of central life crises
- Trust vs Mistrust (infancy)
- Autonomy vs Shame (1-3 yrs)
- Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 yrs)
- Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 yrs)
- Ego Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 yrs)
- Intimacy vs Isolation (18-40 yrs)
- Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65 yrs)
- Ego Integrity vs Despair (65+ yrs)
Trust vs Mistrust
Infancy
Trust - Their environment and themselves
Mistrust - Suspicious of the world
“Can i trust the world?”
Autonomy vs Shame
1-3 yrs
Autonomy - Feeling of will and an ability to exercise choice as well as self restraint; they have a sense of competency and autonomy (independence)
Shame - Doubt and lack of control ; what happens is a result of external influences (external locus of control)
“Is it okay to be me?”
Initiative vs Guilt
3-6 yrs
Initiative - Purpose, the ability to initiate activities and the ability to enjoy accomplishment
Guilt - Overcome by fear of punishment thus restricting themselves or may overcompensate by showing off
“Is it okay for me to do, move act?”
Industry vs Inferiority
6-12 yrs
Industry - Feel competent, exercise abilities and intelligence in the world and affect the world in the way they desire
Inferiority - Sense of inadequacy, inability to act in a competent manner and low self-esteem
“Can i make it in the world of people and things?”
Identity vs Role Confusion
12-18 yrs
Identity - “Physiological Revolution” - fidelity and the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties
Role Confusion - Confusion of ones identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
“Who am I? What can I be?”
Intimacy vs Isolation
18-40 yrs
Intimacy - Love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals
Isolation - Avoidance of commitment, alienation and distancing oneself from others and one’s ideals, withdrawn and only capable of superficial relationships
“Can I love?”
Generativity vs Stagnation
40-65 yrs
Generativity - Individual capable of being a productive, caring and contributing member of society
Stagnation - Self indulgent, bored, self centered and has little care for others
“Can I make my life count?”
Integrity vs Despair
65+ yrs
Integrity - Wisdom, detached concern in life, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity and an acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worthwhile; ready to face death
Despair - Bitterness about ones life, feeling worthless and fear of impending death
“Is it okay to have been me?”
Temperament
Individual differences as well as an individual’s pattern of responding to the environment
Types of Crying
- (Wolff)
One way that infants communicate their needs
- Basic cry associated with hunger
- Angry cry associated with frustration
- Pain cry following a painful stimulus
Social Smiling
smiling associated with face-like patterns
Harry Harlow Experiment
Rhesus Monkeys prefer “contact comfort” (the terry cloth mother) and considered this more essential in bond formation than providing for physical needs (wire mother with food)
Attachment Process
- (John Bowlby)
- Infant( 1-3 mo) reacts identically to every adult and smiling face
- Infant (3-6 mo) discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces
- (6-9 mo) Seek out & respond to the mother specifically
- (9-12 mo) Bonding intensifies and child expresses stranger anxiety (fear of strangers)
- (2 yrs) Separation Anxiety - child reacts to the mother’s absence with strong protest
- (3 yrs) Child is able to separate from the mother without prolonged distress
“Strange Situation Procedure”
- (Mary Ainsworth)
Placing a child in unfamiliar room and being exposed to their mother and a stranger in different contexts
- Insecure / Avoidant Attachment (Type A) - not distressed when left alone with strange and avoid mother on her return
- Secure Attachment (Type B) - mildly distressed during separation from mother but greet her + when she returns
- Insecure / Resistant Attachment (Type C) - distressed during separation and resist mother when she returns
Imprinting
- (Konrad Lorenz)
Rapid formation of an attachment bond between and organism and an object in the environment
Phases of Moral Thought
- (Lawrence Kohlberg)
As our abilities grow we are able to think about the world in more complex ways; these stages are a progression, as each new stage is adopted the previous one is abandoned
Stage 1: Preconventional Morality: Consequence of moral choice
A. Punishment and Obedience -
B. Orientation toward Reciprocity
Stage 2: Conventional Morality: Understanding and accepting social rules
C. “Good Girl, Nice Boy” Orientation
D. Law-and-Order Orientation
Stage 3: Post Conventional Morality: Social mores (not everyone gets to this stage)
E. Social Contract Orientation -
F. Universal Ethics Principle
Self-Socialization - Gender Stages
- (Lawrence Kohlberg)
- Gender Labeling
- Gender Stability
- Gender Consistency
Gender Labeling
(2-3 yrs)
Children achieve gender identity
Gender Stability
(3-4 yrs)
Children can predict that they will still be a boy or a girl when they grow up
Gender Consistency
(4-7 yrs)
Permanency of gender regardless of how one behaves or what one wears
Gender Schematic Processing Theory
- (Martin & Halverson)
As soon as children are able to label themselves they begin focusing on those behaviors that seem to be associated with their gender and pay less attention to those associated with the opposite gender
Parenting Styles
- (Diane Baumrind)
- Authoritative
- Authoritarian
- Permissive
Authoritative Parenting
High demands for child compliance; utilize + reinforcement and are emotionally warm
Authoritarian Parenting
Use punitive control methods and lack emotional warmth
Permissive Parenting
Do not use a lot of control / demand measures
Cognition
How the brain processes and reacts to information overload
Information Processing Model
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding and storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed before responding
- Situational modifications - decisions that were previously made can be extrapolated and adjusted to solve new problems
- Problem solving is depended on cognitive level, content, context and complexity of the problem
Cognitive Development
Development of ones ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Morphology (Morphemes)
Structures of words; Smallest unit of meaning in a language
Prosody
Rhythm, cadence and inflection of voices
Nativist (Biological) Theory of Language
- (Noam Chomsky)
There is an innate, biologically based ability for language
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory of Language
- (B.F. Skinner)
Repetition of sounds create value and reliability
Language is acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and or modeling
Social Interactionist Theory of Language
Language development emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults; Interplay
Whorfian Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)
Perception of reality (the way we think about the world) is determined by the content of language
Language affects the way we think
Zone of Proximal Development
- (Lev Vygotsky)
Referring to skills / abilities not fully developed but in the process of development; requires a more knowledgeable other, generally an adult to acquire the skills successfully
Preconventional Morality:
Stage 1: Consequence of moral choice (Pre-Adolescence)
A. Punishment and Obedience - right and wrong defined by consequences (reward & punishment)
B. Orientation toward Reciprocity - i’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine
Conventional Morality:
Stage 2: Understanding and accepting social rules (Adolescence to Adulthood)
C. “Good Girl, Nice Boy” Orientation - one is looking for the approval of others
D. Law-and-Order Orientation - morality defined by rules of authority; maintain social order
Post Conventional Morality
Stage 3: Social mores (not everyone gets to this stage)
E. Social Contract Orientation - Moral rules are seen as convention that is designed to ensure the greater good
F. Universal Ethics Principle - Decisions made in consideration to abstract principles
Broca’s Area
Articulation center of the brain; controls motor function (muscles) of speech production
Wenickes’s Area
Language reception and comprehension
Aphasia
Deficit of language production or comprehension
Broca Aphasia
Expressive
Word on the tip of the tongue sensation
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Receptive
Speak nonsensical sounds / wrong word combinations
Conduction Aphasia
Unable to repeat something that has been said
Reference Group
Whom we are comparing ourselves to; A measure of our self concept
Theory of Mind
Ability to sense how another’s mind works
Personality
Set of thoughts, feeling, traits and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations; How we act and react to the world around us
Cognitive Development Theory of Language
Language has to do with a child’s capacity for symbolic though, which develops toward the end of the sensorimotor stage
Surface Structure of a Sentence
Actual word order of the words in a sentence
Deep (Abstract) Structure of a Sentence
Underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence
