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MCAT > Learning and memory > Flashcards

Learning and memory Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

describe the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

A

classical conditioning is with pavlov
- based on associating an involuntary response to a stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus
Ex. if you always eat a snack when the commercials are on, you will begin to associate commercials with a sweet treat

operant conditioning
- based on associating voluntary behavior with consequences and using positive and negative reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease the behavior

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2
Q

aquisition

A

this is when a stimulus/response pair becomes conditioned (but this association may not last forever)

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3
Q

discrimmination

A
  • this is when a person or animal learns to distinguish between similar stimuli
  • this would be the dogs being able to tell the difference between different tones of bells and knowing that one means food and the other means nothing
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4
Q

what is the difference between escape learning and avoidance learning

A

these are both negative reinforcers

  • escape learning is going to be someone doing something to release the immediate unpleasantness
    ex. drinking coffee to wake up in the morning

avoidance learning is reducing something that will remove the unpleasantness in the future
ex. studying to avoid a bad score

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5
Q

what does a “fixed” reinforcement schedule mean

A

this means that the reward will be given after a set number of actions or a set amount of time

fixed interval: the reward will be given after a defined time interval
ex paychecks

fixed ratio: the reward will be given after a defined number of performance
ex. after so many pushes of a button, the dog will receive a food pellet

fixed approaches allow the participant or animal becomes aware of what needs to happen to get a reward so they adapt to meet the requirements so they so not always show a linear relationship

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6
Q

what does a “variable” reinforcement schedule mean

A

this means that the reward will be given at a random time or after a random number of performances

variable ratio: this means at random time intervals the food will be given to the rat as long as the rat pushed the button some time during the interval (it does not matter how many times)

variable reward: the reward is given after a random number of performances
- it could be five pushes or 35 pushes

variable approaches tend to show linear relationships because they are unaware of when they will get the reward so they just keep going

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7
Q

latent learning

A

this is learning that occurs free of reward or incentive and will be demonstrated once a reward is present

so a rat will wander through a maze and then if it is shown that that the end there is cheese the next time he will be able to get to the cheese faster because he learned while going through

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8
Q

preparedness

A

different species have predispositions for learning a subset of behaviors

  • this can make them more easily to reinforce and harder to distinguish
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9
Q

instinctive drift

A

the tendency to revert back to an instinctive behavior when trying to condition animals because the action being taught to too similar to something they do instinctually

  • ex. raccoons could not be trained to put coins in a piggy bank because it was too similar to dipping seeds into water and washing them, they would dip the coin in and take it out, but they were able to be trained to put basketballs in hoops because the size was so different
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10
Q

what is explicit memory

A

this is something that we can have conscious recall of

  1. episodic memory: this is recalling a wide array of events and expenses in our lives
  2. semantic memory: things we studied or worked to remember (facts concepts)
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11
Q

what is implicit memory

A

this is something that is unconsciously recalled

this is procedural memory: stimulated by environmental stimuli to perform skills/tasks
ex. riding a bike

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12
Q

arousal theory

A

performing actions to maintain the optimal level of arousal

-this has to do with yerkes-dodson

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13
Q

drive reduction theory

A

this is the idea that motivation comes from the desire to remove drives and uncomfortable states

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14
Q

primary vs secondary drives

A

primary drives are things we cannot live without, food, water, etc

secondary drives are things not related to biological processes
ex. money, achievement, career

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15
Q

describe maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A 
physiological needs (bottom) 
- these are things we cannot live without (breathing, food, sleep, sex)

safety
- this is security in your body, job, housing, health

love/ belonging
- this is friendship, family, sexual intimacy

esteem
- confidence, achievement

self actualization (top) 
- morality, creativity, spontaneity

you need to satisfy the lower levels before moving up, and if one below suddenly becomes not satisfied you go back down

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16
Q

incentive theory

A

this is focusing on making behaviors to avoid punishment and get rewards

  • at a job you will work toward a promotion and limit actions that could get you fired
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17
Q

expectancy- value theory

A

the amount of motivation to achieve a goal is dependant on that person’s expectation and value of success

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18
Q

what are the 7 universal emotions

A 
anger
fear
surprise
happiness
sadness
disgust 
contempt
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19
Q

james- lange theory

A

stimulus –> physiological arousal –>.emotional response

you see a spider, so your heart rate elevates, and then you recognise that you are scared because of your heart rate rise

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20
Q

cannon- bard theory

A

stimulus –> sensory processing –> physiological arousal + emotional response

you see a spider, your thalamus processes the stimulus, then you have a physiological response and get scared

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21
Q

schacter- singer theory

A

—> physiological arousal
stimulus —> emotional response
—> cognitive interpretation

the stimulus causes the physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation which then leads to the emotional response

you see a spider, this increases HR and you recognise I feel afraid, and these lead to fear

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22
Q

what are the four stages cognitive development by piaget

A
  1. sensorimotor (0-2 years )
  2. preoperational (2-7 years )
  3. concrete operational (7-11 years )
  4. formal operational (11 years and up )
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23
Q

sensorimotor state

A

primary: body movements that are soothing so the baby repeats them
- the baby meets self needs by self

secondary circular reactions: this is through action focused outside the body (the baby will throw a toy so the parent goes and picks it up) this is

ends with object permanence

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24
Q

object permanence

A

understanding objects exist even when not in view

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25
Q

preoperational phase

A
  • symbolic thinking (playing make believe)
  • egocentrism (can really only think of themselves)
  • centration (focus on one aspect only –> child will focus on the fact that he gets two pieces rather than one (even if it is the same amount just not cut in two)
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26
Q

concrete operational

A

logical thought is used to explain things but abstract ideas aren’t mastered

-will understand water in one glass transferred to another is the same amount

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27
Q

formal operational

A

children are able to logically think or reason through abstract ideas

28
Q

stage one of sleep

A

theta waves

-irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages

29
Q

stage two of sleep

A

theta waves

- but also has sleep spindles and k complexes

30
Q

stage 3 and 4 of sleep

A

sleep cycle: non-rapid eye movement sleep

  • waves move slower and slower as delta waves
  • these are the ahrdest to wake preople up in this sleep
31
Q

what waves are there when you are alert

A

beta waves

32
Q

what waves are there when you are awake and at rest

A
  • this means awake but with eyes closed

- alpha waves

33
Q

BATs sleep in the Day

A

beta –> alert
alpha –> awake and @ rest
theta –> 1 and 2
delta –> 3 and 4

34
Q

NREM

A

this is non rapid eye movement sleep

-this is the four stages

35
Q

sleep cycle

A

this is the NREW (four stages) + the REM sleep

  • the cycle will be a 90 minutes

the longer amount of time you sleep the greater amount of time we spend in REM

36
Q

REM sleep

A

mimics wakefulness

  • on an EKG it has beta waves
  • muscles are paralyzed but heart rate and breathing would be much like a person who’s awake
37
Q

trust vs mistrust

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

  • this is infancy (0-18 months)
  • is my world safe? feeding comfort has a lot to do with it

children develop a senese of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust

38
Q

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

this is 2 - 3 years old

can I do things by myself or need I always rely on others?

toilet training/dressing

children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and sense of independence

39
Q

initiative vs. guilt

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

  • this is preschool (3-5)

am I good or am I bad?

children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success here leads to a sense of purpose

40
Q

industry vs inferiority

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

6 to ll years old

how can I be good

school and activities

children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success can lead to competence

41
Q

identiry vs role confusion

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

12-18 years adolescense

who am I and where am I going

social relationships and identity

teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself.

42
Q

intimacy vs isolation

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

19-40 years young adulthood

am I loved and wanted

intimate relationships

young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships

43
Q

generativity vs stadnation

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

40-60 years middle adulthood

will I provide something of real value

work and parenthood

adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating positive change that benefits others

44
Q

ego identity vs despair

A

this describes a level of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

65 to death

have I lived a full life

reflection of life

older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment

45
Q

oral

A

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development

0 - 18 months

sucking/mouth, biting, chewing

46
Q

anal

A

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development

18-36 months

anus/bowel and bladder control

47
Q

phallic

A

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development

3-6 years

genitalis masturbation

48
Q

latency

A

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development

6 - puberty

repression of sexual feelings

49
Q

genital

A

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development

puberty +

maturation of sexual orientation

50
Q

freud’s psychosocial theory

A

Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body

51
Q

erikson’s theory

A

this is a theory that looks at people’s egos and personalities and how they require development through a series of eight stages

the individual faces a conflict at each stage, which may or may not be successfully resolved within that stage

52
Q

iconic memory

A

this is memory that has to do with visual sensations

53
Q

echic memory

A

this is memory that has to do with auditory sensations

54
Q

flashbulb memory

A

this is a memory that has high detail and is often remembered well due to emotional ties because it was a significant event (when a president was assassinated, when you heard about 9/11, etc)

55
Q

prospective memory

A

this is something that you are remembering in the future

you remember to watch the water so that the water doesn’t boil over

remembering to take a pill each day

remembering to get groceries on the way home from work

56
Q

Eidetic memory

A

photographic memory

57
Q

top down vs bottom up processing

A

top-down approach goes from the general to the specific, and the bottom-up approach begins at the specific and moves to the general

bottom up: the perception begins with the stimulus itself and this is often data driven

Top-down processing refers to the use of contextual information in pattern recognition.

58
Q

psychophysical discrimination testing

A

directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties.

varying a physical stimulus slightly and observing the effect on a subject’s experience or behavior in order to better understand perceptual processing. (ex change the size slightly between two objects until subject notices a difference)

59
Q

word association testing

A

a test in which the tester gives the patient words and the patient responds with the first thing that comes to mind; used by psychoanalysts like Jung to infer subconscious thoughts or personality traits

60
Q

operational span testing

A

testing of the capacity of working memory;

researchers alternate between presenting a word to be remembered, then asking participants to verify a simple math equation (to interrupt rehearsal), after which the participants are tested to see how many words they remember

61
Q

partial report technique

A

relates to Sperling’s experiments on sensory (iconic) memory;

he would flash a grid of numbers at participants and then immediately ask them to recite a particular row or column; it is in contrast with a full report technique, where he would just ask them to report anything they could remember

62
Q

social capital

A

this is who you know

this typically is referring to your social circle

63
Q

cultural capital

A

this is more about how you act

slightly more abstract qualities like education, knowledge, the way you dress, the way you speak

64
Q

medicalization

A

the process in which a social problem comes to be defined as a disease or disorder.

65
Q

id

A

consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce; functions according to the pleasure principle which aims to achieve immediate gratification in order to relieve pent up tension

66
Q

ego

A

takes into account objective reality and acts as a guide or inhibits activity of id, and id’s please principle as well as desires of super ego; understood as organizer of the mind

67
Q

super ego

A

acts as personality’s perfectionist by judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments or guilt at our failures

MCAT (10 decks)

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