Learning and memory

Question 1

describe the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Answer 1

classical conditioning is with pavlov
- based on associating an involuntary response to a stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus
Ex. if you always eat a snack when the commercials are on, you will begin to associate commercials with a sweet treat

operant conditioning
- based on associating voluntary behavior with consequences and using positive and negative reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease the behavior

Question 2

aquisition

Answer 2

this is when a stimulus/response pair becomes conditioned (but this association may not last forever)

Question 3

discrimmination

Answer 3

• this is when a person or animal learns to distinguish between similar stimuli
• this would be the dogs being able to tell the difference between different tones of bells and knowing that one means food and the other means nothing

Question 4

what is the difference between escape learning and avoidance learning

Answer 4

these are both negative reinforcers

• escape learning is going to be someone doing something to release the immediate unpleasantness
  ex. drinking coffee to wake up in the morning

avoidance learning is reducing something that will remove the unpleasantness in the future
ex. studying to avoid a bad score

Question 5

what does a “fixed” reinforcement schedule mean

Answer 5

this means that the reward will be given after a set number of actions or a set amount of time

fixed interval: the reward will be given after a defined time interval
ex paychecks

fixed ratio: the reward will be given after a defined number of performance
ex. after so many pushes of a button, the dog will receive a food pellet

fixed approaches allow the participant or animal becomes aware of what needs to happen to get a reward so they adapt to meet the requirements so they so not always show a linear relationship

Question 6

what does a “variable” reinforcement schedule mean

Answer 6

this means that the reward will be given at a random time or after a random number of performances

variable ratio: this means at random time intervals the food will be given to the rat as long as the rat pushed the button some time during the interval (it does not matter how many times)

variable reward: the reward is given after a random number of performances
- it could be five pushes or 35 pushes

variable approaches tend to show linear relationships because they are unaware of when they will get the reward so they just keep going

Question 7

latent learning

Answer 7

this is learning that occurs free of reward or incentive and will be demonstrated once a reward is present

so a rat will wander through a maze and then if it is shown that that the end there is cheese the next time he will be able to get to the cheese faster because he learned while going through

Question 8

preparedness

Answer 8

different species have predispositions for learning a subset of behaviors

• this can make them more easily to reinforce and harder to distinguish

Question 9

instinctive drift

Answer 9

the tendency to revert back to an instinctive behavior when trying to condition animals because the action being taught to too similar to something they do instinctually

• ex. raccoons could not be trained to put coins in a piggy bank because it was too similar to dipping seeds into water and washing them, they would dip the coin in and take it out, but they were able to be trained to put basketballs in hoops because the size was so different

Question 10

what is explicit memory

Answer 10

this is something that we can have conscious recall of

1. episodic memory: this is recalling a wide array of events and expenses in our lives
2. semantic memory: things we studied or worked to remember (facts concepts)

Question 11

what is implicit memory

Answer 11

this is something that is unconsciously recalled

this is procedural memory: stimulated by environmental stimuli to perform skills/tasks
ex. riding a bike

Question 12

arousal theory

Answer 12

performing actions to maintain the optimal level of arousal

-this has to do with yerkes-dodson

Question 13

drive reduction theory

Answer 13

this is the idea that motivation comes from the desire to remove drives and uncomfortable states

Question 14

primary vs secondary drives

Answer 14

primary drives are things we cannot live without, food, water, etc

secondary drives are things not related to biological processes
ex. money, achievement, career

Question 15

describe maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 15

physiological needs (bottom) 
- these are things we cannot live without (breathing, food, sleep, sex)

safety
- this is security in your body, job, housing, health

love/ belonging
- this is friendship, family, sexual intimacy

esteem
- confidence, achievement

self actualization (top) 
- morality, creativity, spontaneity

you need to satisfy the lower levels before moving up, and if one below suddenly becomes not satisfied you go back down

Question 16

incentive theory

Answer 16

this is focusing on making behaviors to avoid punishment and get rewards

• at a job you will work toward a promotion and limit actions that could get you fired

Question 17

expectancy- value theory

Answer 17

the amount of motivation to achieve a goal is dependant on that person’s expectation and value of success

Question 18

what are the 7 universal emotions

Answer 18

anger
fear
surprise
happiness
sadness
disgust 
contempt

Question 19

james- lange theory

Answer 19

stimulus –> physiological arousal –>.emotional response

you see a spider, so your heart rate elevates, and then you recognise that you are scared because of your heart rate rise

Question 20

cannon- bard theory

Answer 20

stimulus –> sensory processing –> physiological arousal + emotional response

you see a spider, your thalamus processes the stimulus, then you have a physiological response and get scared

Question 21

schacter- singer theory

Answer 21

—> physiological arousal
stimulus —> emotional response
—> cognitive interpretation

the stimulus causes the physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation which then leads to the emotional response

you see a spider, this increases HR and you recognise I feel afraid, and these lead to fear

Question 22

what are the four stages cognitive development by piaget

Answer 22

1. sensorimotor (0-2 years )
2. preoperational (2-7 years )
3. concrete operational (7-11 years )
4. formal operational (11 years and up )

Question 23

sensorimotor state

Answer 23

primary: body movements that are soothing so the baby repeats them
- the baby meets self needs by self

secondary circular reactions: this is through action focused outside the body (the baby will throw a toy so the parent goes and picks it up) this is

ends with object permanence

Question 24

object permanence

Answer 24

understanding objects exist even when not in view

Question 25

preoperational phase

Answer 25

- symbolic thinking (playing make believe) - egocentrism (can really only think of themselves) - centration (focus on one aspect only --> child will focus on the fact that he gets two pieces rather than one (even if it is the same amount just not cut in two)

Question 26

concrete operational

Answer 26

logical thought is used to explain things but abstract ideas aren't mastered -will understand water in one glass transferred to another is the same amount

Question 27

formal operational

Answer 27

children are able to logically think or reason through abstract ideas

Question 28

stage one of sleep

Answer 28

theta waves | -irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages

Question 29

stage two of sleep

Answer 29

theta waves | - but also has sleep spindles and k complexes

Question 30

stage 3 and 4 of sleep

Answer 30

sleep cycle: non-rapid eye movement sleep - waves move slower and slower as delta waves - these are the ahrdest to wake preople up in this sleep

Question 31

what waves are there when you are alert

Answer 31

beta waves

Question 32

what waves are there when you are awake and at rest

Answer 32

- this means awake but with eyes closed | - alpha waves

Question 33

BATs sleep in the Day

Answer 33

beta --> alert alpha --> awake and @ rest theta --> 1 and 2 delta --> 3 and 4

Question 34

NREM

Answer 34

this is non rapid eye movement sleep -this is the four stages

Question 35

sleep cycle

Answer 35

this is the NREW (four stages) + the REM sleep - the cycle will be a 90 minutes the longer amount of time you sleep the greater amount of time we spend in REM

Question 36

REM sleep

Answer 36

mimics wakefulness - on an EKG it has beta waves - muscles are paralyzed but heart rate and breathing would be much like a person who's awake

Question 37

trust vs mistrust

Answer 37

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages - this is infancy (0-18 months) - is my world safe? feeding comfort has a lot to do with it children develop a senese of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust

Question 38

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Answer 38

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages this is 2 - 3 years old can I do things by myself or need I always rely on others? toilet training/dressing children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and sense of independence

Question 39

initiative vs. guilt

Answer 39

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages - this is preschool (3-5) am I good or am I bad? children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success here leads to a sense of purpose

Question 40

industry vs inferiority

Answer 40

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages 6 to ll years old how can I be good school and activities children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success can lead to competence

Question 41

identiry vs role confusion

Answer 41

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages 12-18 years adolescense who am I and where am I going social relationships and identity teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself.

Question 42

intimacy vs isolation

Answer 42

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages 19-40 years young adulthood am I loved and wanted intimate relationships young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships

Question 43

generativity vs stadnation

Answer 43

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages 40-60 years middle adulthood will I provide something of real value work and parenthood adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating positive change that benefits others

Question 44

ego identity vs despair

Answer 44

this describes a level of Erikson's psychosocial stages 65 to death have I lived a full life reflection of life older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment

Question 45

oral

Answer 45

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development 0 - 18 months sucking/mouth, biting, chewing

Question 46

anal

Answer 46

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development 18-36 months anus/bowel and bladder control

Question 47

phallic

Answer 47

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development 3-6 years genitalis masturbation

Question 48

latency

Answer 48

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development 6 - puberty repression of sexual feelings

Question 49

genital

Answer 49

this is a freudian psychosexual stage of development puberty + maturation of sexual orientation

Question 50

freud's psychosocial theory

Answer 50

Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body

Question 51

erikson's theory

Answer 51

this is a theory that looks at people's egos and personalities and how they require development through a series of eight stages the individual faces a conflict at each stage, which may or may not be successfully resolved within that stage

Question 52

iconic memory

Answer 52

this is memory that has to do with visual sensations

Question 53

echic memory

Answer 53

this is memory that has to do with auditory sensations

Question 54

flashbulb memory

Answer 54

this is a memory that has high detail and is often remembered well due to emotional ties because it was a significant event (when a president was assassinated, when you heard about 9/11, etc)

Question 55

prospective memory

Answer 55

this is something that you are remembering in the future you remember to watch the water so that the water doesn't boil over remembering to take a pill each day remembering to get groceries on the way home from work

Question 56

Eidetic memory

Answer 56

photographic memory

Question 57

top down vs bottom up processing

Answer 57

top-down approach goes from the general to the specific, and the bottom-up approach begins at the specific and moves to the general bottom up: the perception begins with the stimulus itself and this is often data driven Top-down processing refers to the use of contextual information in pattern recognition.

Question 58

psychophysical discrimination testing

Answer 58

directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties. varying a physical stimulus slightly and observing the effect on a subject’s experience or behavior in order to better understand perceptual processing. (ex change the size slightly between two objects until subject notices a difference)

Question 59

word association testing

Answer 59

a test in which the tester gives the patient words and the patient responds with the first thing that comes to mind; used by psychoanalysts like Jung to infer subconscious thoughts or personality traits

Question 60

operational span testing

Answer 60

testing of the capacity of working memory; researchers alternate between presenting a word to be remembered, then asking participants to verify a simple math equation (to interrupt rehearsal), after which the participants are tested to see how many words they remember

Question 61

partial report technique

Answer 61

relates to Sperling's experiments on sensory (iconic) memory; he would flash a grid of numbers at participants and then immediately ask them to recite a particular row or column; it is in contrast with a full report technique, where he would just ask them to report anything they could remember

Question 62

social capital

Answer 62

this is who you know this typically is referring to your social circle

Question 63

cultural capital

Answer 63

this is more about how you act slightly more abstract qualities like education, knowledge, the way you dress, the way you speak

Question 64

medicalization

Answer 64

the process in which a social problem comes to be defined as a disease or disorder.

Question 65

id

Answer 65

consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce; functions according to the pleasure principle which aims to achieve immediate gratification in order to relieve pent up tension

Question 66

ego

Answer 66

takes into account objective reality and acts as a guide or inhibits activity of id, and id's please principle as well as desires of super ego; understood as organizer of the mind

Question 67

super ego

Answer 67

acts as personality's perfectionist by judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments or guilt at our failures