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Neuro Endo 3 > Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Learning and Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Procedural memory

A
  • implicit memory, non-declarative memory, reflexive memory

- skills and habits that have been used so much they are automatic

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2
Q

What are the anatomic structures involved in procedural memory?

A
  • cerebellum = motor skills

- nucleus accumbens = non motor

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3
Q

Declarative memory

A
  • explicit memory

- conscious recognition/recollection of learned facts and experiences

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4
Q

What are the two subdivisions of declarative memory?

A

1) episodic: memory of events

2) semantic: memory of words, language, and rules

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5
Q

How long is short-term memory?

A

seconds to hours

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6
Q

How long is long-term memory?

A

years

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7
Q

Working memory

A

recalling a fact/memory for use

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8
Q

What does the production of memory and learning require?

A

induction of neuronal and synaptic plasticity

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9
Q

How can alteration in the CNS be used?

A

1) synaptic function altered

2) changes in the physical structure of neurons (more synapses, new branches to new cells)

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10
Q

What occurs under post-tetanic stimulation?

A
  • brief, high-frequency discharge of presynaptic neuron
  • produces an increase in NT release lasts bout 60 seconds
  • increases probability of action potentials in post-synaptic cell
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11
Q

What is the mechanism of post-tetanic stimulation?

A
  • high level of stimulation allowed more calcium to enter the terminal than could be dealt with
  • with more calcium, more vesicles fuse, leading to a greater NT release
  • greater probability of action potentials in post-synaptic cell
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12
Q

Define long term potentiation

A

a series of changes in the pre and post synaptic neurons of a synapse which leads to increased response to the released neurotransmitter

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13
Q

Long term potentiation is also associated with gene transcription related to the increase in what?

A

CREB in both pre and post synaptic cells

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14
Q

What proteins are produced with the process of neuronal plasticity?

A
  • NT synthetic enzymes
  • NT receptors
  • proteins required for growth/synapse formation
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15
Q

How can learning and the formation of new memories be blocked?

A

by blocking protein synthesis

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16
Q

What are the 4 steps in creating declarative memories?

A

1) encoding
2) storage of the information
3) consolidation
4) retrieval

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17
Q

What occurs during the process of encoding?

A
  • attending to new information
  • linking it to previous memories
  • emotion is important component
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18
Q

What occurs during the storage of information?

A
  • retention of short information over time

- short term memory

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19
Q

What anatomical substrates are involved in short term memory?

A
  • hippocampus
  • parahippocampal cortex
  • prefrontal cortex
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20
Q

How are the neocortex and amygdala interconnected in the process of short term memory?

A

through nucleus basalis of Meynert which is a cholinergic projection
(target of Alzheimer’s)

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21
Q

What is the physiological substrate for short-term memory?

A

LTP; which allows us to store temporary information

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22
Q

What occurs during the consolidation stage of creating declarative memory?

A
  • process of making a memory permanent

- involved physical changes in synaptic structure

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23
Q

What anatomical structures are needed to consolidate a short term memory into long term?

A
  • hippocampus
  • temporal lobes
  • papez circuit
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24
Q

What is the Papez circuit?

A
  • circuit that occurs over an over again and is required to consolidate a memory from short term to long term
  • sets up conditions required to induce LTP and neuronal plasticity
  • hippocampus > hypothalamus > anterior thalamus > cingulate cortex
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25
Q

Where is long term memory stored?

A

in the area of the cortex related to the modality of the individual components

26
Q

What is involved in the process of retrieval?

A
  • recalling/using the memory
  • bringing the memory into working memory
  • can be modified or lost at this point
27
Q

What anatomical features are involved in the reassembling of long term memory?

A
  • neocortex
  • parahippocampal regions
  • hippocampus
28
Q

What are the steps in recalling and retrieving memory?

A

1) info related to each component of the memory is sent to the parahippocampal regions
2) those components are then sent to the hippocampus where the entire memory is “reconstructed”
3) info then travels back through the parahippocampus to the cortex

29
Q

What is the main importance of the parahippocampus in long term memory?

A

prolonging the life of the cortical trace of the memory

30
Q

What is the 3 component model of working memory?

A

1) central executive (prefrontal cortex) decides what we need
2) interacts with the visuospatial loop (occipital cortex) and phonological loop (Broca’s and Wernickes)

31
Q

Summary steps of memory retrieval

A

1) take memory components from “storage area”
2) back to parahippocampal cortex
3) to hippocampus, which reconstructs the memory
4) to cortex via parahippocampal region (keeps the trace)
5) use working memory

32
Q

Where is a detailed memory of a space stored?

A

hippocampus

33
Q

What kind of cells are used in the storage of a memory of space?

A

special pyramidal cells in CA1 known as place cells

34
Q

What is the role of the spatial map?

A

serves as an “anchor” for the reconstruction of a memory

35
Q

What are place cells?

A

neurons that are active only at specific places; especially strong activation is reward is associated with the place

36
Q

What inputs do place cells receive?

A
  • grid cells
  • head direction cells
  • border neurons
37
Q

What are grid cells?

A
  • a set of neurons not as specific that are sent to place cells to help code for spatial memory
  • in the entorhinal cortex
  • create a map of a place you are in
  • grid map or triangular or hexagonal grid
38
Q

What are head direction cells?

A

relay which direction head was in

39
Q

What are border cells?

A

cells that fire near a border or wall

40
Q

What type of synapses do learning and memory produce?

A

axo-dendritic

41
Q

What are the elements of the pre-synaptic cell?

A
  • vesicles that store the NT
  • mitochondria
  • synaptic proteins that allow for vesicle docking and release
  • autoreceptors used for negative feedback
42
Q

What are the elements of the post synaptic cell?

A
  • dendrite
  • receptors for NTs
  • enzymes for degradation
43
Q

EAA receptor subtypes

A
  • non NMDA = primary sodium influx
  • Kainate
  • AMPA = barbiturate binding site modifies current
  • NMDA receptors = calcium influx (includes glycine co agonist, Mg2+ and PCP block channel)
44
Q

What are NMDA receptors also associated with besides an influx of calcium?

A

-activation of calcineurin which induces the production of nitric oxide

45
Q

What is the effect of nitric oxide?

A

-lipid soluble, so leaves post-synaptic cell and enters pre-synaptic cell to exert modifying effect

46
Q

What are the characteristics of the EPSP produced by NMDA receptors?

A
  • delayed activation (long latency) due to channel blockade at physiological conditions
  • longer in duration
47
Q

Where are the ionotropic receptors found?

A

post synaptic membranes throughout the CNS

48
Q

Why are non-NMDA receptors found at synapses either alone or with NMDA receptors, but NMDA receptors are always co localized with non-NMDA receptors?

A
  • co localization is needed because the NMDS receptor is blocked by Mg2+ under normal conditions
  • the depolarization of the non-NMDA receptor forces the Mg2+ out of the NMDA receptor channel and allows calcium to enter the cell
49
Q

Where are metabotropic EAA receptors located?

A

both pre and post synaptic cells

50
Q

What is the role of presynaptic metabotropic receptors?

A
  • provide feedback to presynaptic cell regarding how much NT has been released
  • positive and negative feedback
51
Q

What are the effects of post synaptic metabotropic receptors?

A

-multiple effects including inhibitory responses as seen in vision

52
Q

Which is the only receptor type associated with production of nitric oxide?

A

NMDA

53
Q

How does the strength of encoding effect memory?

A

-greater the strength of encoding, greater the memory

54
Q

What does LTP lead to?

A

-increased epsp amplitude in response to same amount of NT released from the pre-synaptic neuron

55
Q

What changes in the presynaptic neuron are associated with LTP?

A
  • increased calcium in post synaptic neuron leads to activation of NOS and the production of NO
  • NO diffuses out of postsynaptic cells and into presynaptic cell
  • increased production of cGMP
  • increased neurotransmitter release with future action potentials
56
Q

How does LTP produce long term changes?

A

changes in gene transcription

57
Q

How can learning be prevented?

A

blocking protein synthesis

58
Q

How does the cascade initiated by LTP activate CREB?

A

1) calcium binds to calpain
2) activation of RAS
3) RAS activates MAPK
4) production of CREB
5) increases in gene transcription and translation

59
Q

What proteins are synthesized in greater amounts after learning?

A
  • receptors for NTs
  • proteins associated with the synapse
  • NT synthesis
60
Q

What occurs to explicit memory during the recollection?

A
  • the storage becomes “plastic” again

- disruption of protein synthesis after this can cause even a long-term memory to disappear

61
Q

How does the timing of post-tetanic potentiation and LTP differ?

A 
PTP = 30 to 60 seconds
LTP = greater than 5 minutes

Neuro Endo 3 (13 decks)

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