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cognitive neuroscience > learning and memory > Flashcards

learning and memory Flashcards

1
Q

memory

A

group of mechanisms or processes by which experience shapes us, changing our brains and our behaviour

involves direct changes to the makeup of our brain

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2
Q

amnesia

A

loss of memory (including an inability to form new long-term memories

HM is the most famous case study. He participated in studies over multiple decades. His amnesia followed surgical resection to control his epilepsy. after his surgery, HM could not form new long term memories.

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3
Q

amnesia damage

A

damage to regions of the medial temporal lobe including:

hippocampus
dentate gyrus
subiculum
amygdala
parahippocampal area

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4
Q

long term potentiation

A

the hippocampus receives via the entorhinal cortex highly pre processed input about the “items” encountered in the environment

exhibits this phenomenon which is repeated activation of pathways producing a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons (facilitating AP firing)

after LTP, the same amount of presynaptic stimulation results in greater/stronger post synaptic potential (facilitates action potential firing)

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5
Q

synaptic plasticity

A

larger graded potentials facilitating APs firing can also come from: interneuron modulation, formation of new synapses

synaptic input can also be rearranged based on usage

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6
Q

midline diencephalic region damage

A

can also cause amnesia

particularly when the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus are damaged

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7
Q

what is midline diencephalic region damage caused by

A

korsakoff syndrome

chronic alcohol abuse

via and accident

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8
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

memory impairment for information acquired prior to the event that caused the amnesia

temporal extent can vary greatly, from minutes to decades

the greater the damage to hippocampal regions, the greater length of retrograde amnesia

impaired episodic memory

characterized by a temporal gradient where there is a greater compromise of more recent memories than more remote memories

gradients of retrograde amnesia suggest that memory may undergo a process of consolidation during the time after learning

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9
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

there is a deficit in learning new information after the onset of amnesia

typically occurs in association with at least some retrograde amnesia

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10
Q

episodic memory

A

memories of events of the past including autobiographical information of our experiences

autobiographical memories of specific episodes in our lives - re experiencing events

remembering your last bday

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11
Q

semantic memory

A

usually stays in tact for the basic perceptual, motor, linguistic, and intellectual competences a person had before the onset of amnesia

they also retain information learned early on in life about language, objects and the world in general

knowing that monkeys have tails

knowledge of facts, concepts and categories - generalizing knowledge

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12
Q

working memory

A

the ability to hold a limited amount of information on-line over the short term while information is being actively used or processed

unaffected after damage to hippocampus

HM had an intact working memory span, however once working memory was exceeded performance suffered

the ability to retain limited amounts of information for a short time while actively working with that info
- patients can show a selective impairment in working memory while at the same time, having intact long-term memory
- hippocampal damage patients with intact working memory and disrupted long-term memory suggest that the forms of memory rely on different brain areas

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13
Q

hippocampal damage and skill learning

A

even after hippocampal damage, skill learning is still possible

this is the acquisition (usually gradually and incrementally through repetition) of motor, perceptual or cognitive operations or procedures that aid performance

first demonstrated in HM via a mirror-drawing task
- even though he could not remember doing the task previously, his performance improved with increasing practice

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14
Q

dissociation in amnesia

A

skill learning occurs even when patients: cannot recollect the training events, cannot recall or recognize the material or have no insight into their improved performance

dissociation in amnesia is probably best illustated by the word-stem completion task

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15
Q

morris water maze

A

the dissociation between episodic memory and other forms of memory can be demonstrated in both rodents and nonhuman primates

rat swim to constant ledge but can not see because opaque water

put them in a different starting position they start to wander

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16
Q

explicit memory system

A

lost in amnesia

permits the conscious recollection of prior experiences and fact

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17
Q

implicit memory system

A

allows prior experience to affect behaviour without the individual consciously retrieving the memory or even being aware of it

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18
Q

declarative memory system

A

people know information and can use is flexibly outside of the the situation in which it was aquired

fact

possible to retrieve semantic information without hippocampus

some aspects of semantic memory may rely on domain specific neocortical processors

anterior temporal lobe regions may play a role in retaining info that is not linked to a particular modality

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19
Q

procedural memory system

A

appears to support memory of “how” things should be done, allowing for the acquisition and expression of skill

how to do smt

skill memory

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20
Q

long term memories broken into

A

declarative (explicit) and non declarative (implicit)

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21
Q

declarative (explicit) memory is broken into

A

episodic and semantic

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22
Q

non-declarative (implicit) memory is broken into

A

skill learning, priming and conditioning

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23
Q

skill learning

A

knowing how to ride a bicycle

procedural

24
Q

priming

A

being more likely to use a word you recently read

25
Q

conditioning

A

feeling anxiety when you enter a dentists office

reinforcement from previous visits

26
Q

the basal ganglia: skill learning

A

patients with basal ganglia damage (parkinson’s or huntington’s diseases) show memory deficits opposites of those seen in patients with hippocampal damage

deficits on skill learning tasks

intact explicit/declarative memory

their difficulty is observed with habit learning tasks such as the rotary pursuit task and the serial reaction time task

27
Q

error driven learning

A

occurs when the prediction between an expected outcome and the actual outcome are at odds

this error driven learning mechanism tends to be implicit in nature

individuals can learn from these action-outcome associations without being aware of them (implicit and procedural)

28
Q

the basal ganglia and error-driven learning

A

the basal ganglia rely on dopaminergic neuron signalling

dopaminergic cells increase firing to an unpredicted reward and decrease firing when a reward is predicted but does not occur

dopaminergic cells fire in relation to whether or not a reward is expected, which acts as a learning signal

29
Q

amygdala

A

major role is associating stimuli with an emotional response

bilateral amygdala damage disrupts the enhancement of memory for emotional information, but doess not affect memory neutral info

responds to highly arousing, emotional situations by influencing the memory circuitry in the brain (including the hippocampus and striatum)

30
Q

pavlovian fear conditioning

A

a stimulus (tone) is paired with an aversive event (shock)

leads to contextual fear conditioning

31
Q

contextual fear conditioning

A

a fear response is selective to the environment in which conditioning occurs

32
Q

fear conditioning

A

fMRI research shows fear conditioning is associated with increased activation of the amygdala

more activation = stronger conditioned fear response

amygdala damage precludes a person from exhibiting a conditioned fear response

however if hippocampus is intact, a person can report the particulars of the conditioning paradigm, such as that a specific tone was paired with a shock

33
Q

anterior temporal lobe

A

integrates sensory input from modality - specific regions to create an amodal representation of information

associated with semantic dementia

34
Q

areas of episodic memory

A

hippocampus
medial and temporal regions
diencephalon

35
Q

areas of semantic memory

A

anterior temporal lobe

36
Q

areas of procedural memory

A

basal ganglia

37
Q

areas of priming

A

domain-specific sensory and motor regions

38
Q

areas of working memory

A

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

39
Q

areas of attentional aspects of retrieval

A

parietal cortex

40
Q

areas of strategic encoding and retrieval

A

ventrolateral prefrontal cortex

41
Q

areas of emotional memory, augmentation of episodic memories and fear conditioning

A

amygdala

42
Q

stages of memory

A
  1. memories have to be created (encoded into memory)
  2. memories must be stored (maintained overtime)
  3. while being stored, memories are often strengthened = consolidation
  4. for a memory to be useful, it must be retrieved
43
Q

medial temporal lobe structures involve in encoding

A

spatial info comes from the retrosplenial cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus

info about objects and their identities comes from perirhinal cortex

this info converges on the entorhinal cortex and is then transmitted to the hippocampus

44
Q

encoding in hippocampus

A

ensures that similar and overlapping representations are encoded more distinctly

45
Q

encoding in ventrolateral prefrontal regions

A

selects all information most relevant for encoding from among many pieces of a given episode

46
Q

encoding in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

A

important for encoding info that must be rendered or rearranged

47
Q

memory consolidation

A

hippocampus plays large role

the process by which memories are strengthened over time to allow for long-term retention

evidence for this comes from the temporal extent of retrograde amnesia changes as the time since injury passes
- often referred to as shrinking retrograde amnesia

48
Q

consolidation model

A

argues that the hippocampal system is required not only to lay down memories, but also to consolidate them

suggests that over time, the hippocampus aids in strengthening the bonds between the distinct pieces of a memory trace, each of which relies on a separate neocortical processor

once they are bound in this way, they can be retrieved independently of the hippocampal system

49
Q

recognition

A

knowing

ie/ mc questions

larger left frontal negativity to items people think they have see than correct rejections

relies on the perirhinal cortex and connections with dorsal medial nucleus

have memory representations that are not as precise as those of the hippocampus

50
Q

recall

A

remembering

ie/ short answer questions

posterior parietal positivity is larger to studied hits that to non-studies items

relies on hippocampus and related midline diencephalic structures

allow for specifically remembering an item or event along the complexity of its larger spatial and temporal context

51
Q

dual process model

A

argues that recall an recognition are two seperate and distinct memory retrieval processes

52
Q

prefrontal cortex and retrieval

A

neuroimaging evidence indicated that this is active during memory retrieval
- the effects are lateralized: lefts PFC verbal info and right PFC is non verbal info

damage causes retrieval deficites, especially for free recall

posterior PFC more related to retrieval attempt than success

PFC may also play a role in surpressing retrieval of memories

53
Q

parietal cortex and retrieval

A

contributes to memory retrieval through its role in attentional and integrative aspects of memory
- damage does not cause severe memory deficits
- patients with damage have less confidence in their memory recall and are less likely to use retrieval cues
- damage may affect the ability to integrate different components of a memory, direct attention to specific details to be retrieved, or to assess familiarity

54
Q

central executive

A

performs the mental work of controlling these subsystems and forming strategies for using information

controls attention (goal driven), handles cognitive tasks, and coordinates the phonological loop and the visuspatial sketchpad

55
Q

phonological loop

A

handling spoken and written information

56
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

processing visual and spatial information, used in navigation

57
Q

episodic buffer

A

integrate info across these systems with time sequencing (ie/ chronological order) and link working memory to long-term memory

cognitive neuroscience (15 decks)

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