Learning and Development - Part 2 Flashcards
Describe Temperament
- A person’s basic disposition
- Has a genetic component
- Is apparent to some degree at birth
- Predictive of later personality
Behavioral Inhibition (KAGAN)
- Child identified as Inhibited or Uninhibited
- Kagan’s research confirmed a biological contribution
- Characteristic is relatively stable
- Children identified at 21 months of age as being either inhibited or uninhibited
- –>categorized the same at 5 1/2 and 7 1/2 years old.
- Level of inhibition related to physiological reactivity
What does research show about physiological sxs in children who have opposite behavioral inhibition temperament?
- Inhibited children had a higher heart rate, greater pupil dilation, and greater changes in blood pressure than uninhibited children.
Describe the Thomas & Chess Model of temperament
- Thomas & Chess thought that most babies can be categorized by 1 of 3 categories:
- Easy, Difficult, and Slow to Warm Up
Thomas & Chess’ Model of Temperament
Goodness of Fit Model- a child’s adjustment is related to the degree to which the parents’ behaviors match the child’s temperament.
Erickson’s 8 PsychoSocial Stages of
Time period, Name of Stage, Primary Outcome
- Infancy- TRUST VS MISTRUST - trust and optimism (Virtue = Hope)
- Toddler- AUTONOMY vs SHAME/DOUBT - sense of self/autonomy
(Virtue = WILL) - Early Childhood- INITIATIVE vs GUILT - set goals, devise and carry out plans
(Virtue = Purpose) - School Age- INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY - to avoid inferiority, child must develop social and academic skills (Virtue = Competence)
- Adolescence- IDENTITY vs ROLE CONFUSION (Identity Crisis)- Personal identity, direction for future (Virtue = Fidelity)
- Young Adulthood- INTIMACY vs ISOLATION - establish bonds of love and friendship, or self-absorption and isolation may result (Virtue = Love)
- Middle Adulthood- GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION - people and work important, exhibit commitment to future generations (Virtue = CARE)
- Maturation/Old Age- EGO INTEGRITY vs DESPAIR - embrace humanity widely; informed, detached concern about death; sense of integrity (Virtue = WISDOM)
Levinson’s Developmental Theory
- Transitions
- The Dream
- Time-since-birth to Time-Left to live
Baumrind’s 4 Parenting Styles
- Authoritarian: Demanding, low Responsivity kids: irritable, aggressive, low self-esteem, low academic achievement
- Authoritative: Rational control and responsivity, encouragement of independence. Kids assertive, self-confident, academic achievement
- Permissive (Indulgent) - warm/caring but low demands and non-punative. Kids: immature, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence.
- Rejecting-Neglecting: non-responsive and low-demanding; Kids:
What does research show is associated with adolescent delinquency?
- Lack of maternal warmth
- Lack of supervision
- Inconsistent or harsh discipline
What does research say about maternal depression on development?
- Increases child’s risk for emotional and behavioral problems
- Associated with insecure attachment in infants and preschoolers
Early Self-Descriptions
Ages 2-6: concrete physical characteristics, specific behaviors, and preferences
Ages 6-10 (middle childhood): refer to their competencies.
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory (of gender development):
Kohlberg thought that like Cognitive Development Theory, identity development entailed a predictable sequence of stages: - Gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy
What was Bem’s Theory?
GENDER SCHEMATA THEORY: children develop conceptual frameworks about what is expected of them as girls or boys, and then apply those frameworks to their own behavior.
What does research say about androgeny?
That for both males and females, androgeny and masculinity are associated with higher levels of self-esteem than is femininity.
What did Erickson say was the primary developmental task of adolescence?
Achievement of a coherent identity
What did Marcia say involved 4 Stages? (Expanded on Erickson’s idea)
Development of an adolescent identity.
The stages of Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Achievement.
Gilligan’s Argument
That in adolescence, girls experience a Relational Crisis as the result of increasing pressure to conform to cultural stereotypes about the “perfect good woman”
At about what age do children understand that death is universal and irreversible and ends biological f(x)ing?
About age 10
When are adults most anxious about death?
Middle-age
What are Kubler-Ross’ 5 Stages of reacting to one’s own death?
- Denial
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
Attachment
- Refers to the strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her primary caregiver(s).
- There are several explanations for the origins of attachment.
Name common approaches to theories of attachment and who the main researcher was
- Psychoanalytic
- Attachment due to mother consequence of oral gratification - Harlow (Learning Theory; monkey exp)
- Attachment due at least in part to Contact Comfort - Bowlby
- Attachment due exposure of infant to their mother during a critical period (1st year of life)
- said babies born w/predisposition to increase attachment, ie: cry, smile, vocalize
- defined 4 Stages of Attachment and “internal working model”
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
Defined 4 stages: - pre-attachment - attachment-in-the-making - clear-cut attachment - formation of reciprocal relationships- These result in an Internal Working Model
Signs of Attachment
Social Referencing (6 months)
- baby looks at caregiver to see how to respond (Visual Cliff)
Separation Anxiety
Stranger Anxiety
Ainsworth’s categories of attachment
I. Secure
II Insecure- Anxious/Ambivalent
III. Insecure Anxious/Avoidant
IV. Disorganized/Disoriented
Strange Situation
AINSWORTH- A research procedure in which mother leaves their infant alone with a stranger and then returns
Secure Attachment: Parent and Child Characteristics
P: Emotionally sensitive , responsive to baby’s cues
C: Explores room with mother present, mildly upset when mother leaves, actively seeks her out when she returns
Insecure Anxious Ambivalent
P: Moody, inconsistent behavior in mother
C: Ambivalent, resistant behavior,
Insecure Anxious Avoidant
P: Impatient, unresponsive OR provide too much stimulation
C: Interacts very little with mother, little distress when leaving room, avoids or ignores her return, react to mother and stranger similarly
DisORganized/DisORiented Attachment
P: 80% of mistreated babies display characteristics
C: Fear of caregivers, dazed or confused facial expression, greeting mother then looking away, other disorganized attachment behaviors.
Emotions in infants
- Babies express basic emotions of interest, sadness, disgust, and distress soon after birth
- 18-24 months: self-conscious emotions of jealousy, empathy, disgust, and distress, embarrassment.
What does Patterson attribute high levels of aggressiveness in children to?
- Coercive interactions between children and their parents and poor monitoring of children’s activities.
What model of training did Patterson at. al. come up with to teach parents effective parenting skills?
Parenting Management Training (Oregon) PTMO
Which Social Cognitive factor has aggressive behavior also been linked to?
Hostility Attribution - the tendency to interpret the positive or ambiguous actions of others as intentionally hostile
Difference between Heteronomous stages of morality
Autonomous stages of morality?? PIAGET
(Moral Development Theory)-
Heteronomous- judgements are based primarily on the act’s consequences
- Autonomous- judgements based on intentions of person acting
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory (of Moral Development)
Predicts a universal, invariant sequence of 3 levels (Pre-Conventional , Conventional, Post-Conventional)
Describe Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Pre-Conventional-
-Moral judgments based on desire to avoid punishment or receive rewards
Conventional-
- Judgements contingent on social approval or rules, laws
Post-Conventional-
-Moral judgments based on Democratically-Determined Laws or Universal Ethical Principals
Who criticized Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?
Gilligan, who said it applied more to males who focus on justice on individual rights than to females who focus more on caring and responsibility to others.
Risk factors of divorce for women
- marry at a young age
- low level of education
- no religious affiliation
- mixed-ethnic relationship
- single parent home
- have experienced rap
- have child within 7 mos
- co-habitated with partner before marriage
Gottesman and Levenson identified which 2 interaction patterns that are predictive of divorce?
- Emotionally volatile, attack-demand
- Inexpressive (later divorce)
Describe some post-divorce facts about mothers and consequences on children
- Custodial mothers are often less warm and loving toward their children and are less consistent but more authoritarian w/regard to punishment
- Effects most profound during the first year after divorce (specific consequences related to age and gender)
- Preschoolers of divorcing parents show the most distress immediately, while 6-8 year-olds show long-term negative consequences
- Immediate consequences of divorce are worse for male children, while there may be a SLEEPER EFFECT for females, who could develop problems in adolescence.
Sibling Relationships
- Middle childhood- closeness, cooperation/competition,
- Increased rivalry in middle school
- less intensity, more distant, and more egalitarianism in adolescence
Effects of Maternal Employment
- Benefits outweigh costs
- in low SES fams, higher achievement/cog devl scores in boys
- in high SES fams, lower achievement/cog devl scores in boys
Effects of Rejection by Peers in Children
- increased negative outcomes, even when social group changed
The Importance of PLAY
- essential for development
- Dramatic/Imaginative = symbols, imitation, problem solving
- Non-social play = unoccupied, onlooker, solitary
- Social play = parallel, associative, and cooperative
What is the Buffering Hypothesis?
Research shows that an individual’s perception of social support is more critical than actual support for alleviating feelings of loneliness and reducing effects of stress.
When does peer pressure to conform peak?
About age 14-15; when these younger teens are responsive to all types of peer influence- neutral, positive, and negative.
What is Carstensen’s socio-emotional selectivity theory?
Social relationships in adulthood
It predicts that social motives correspond to perceptions of time left in life as being limited or unlimited.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy (Rosenthal Effect)
Rosenthal and Jacobson, regarding teacher expectations about student achievement.
What does research on teacher feedback to students show?
That teacher feedback is related to a child’s gender. Girls more likely than boys to view their failures as a result of a lack of ability.
Negative Relief State Model
In the Negative State Relief model, helping behaviors are motivated by one’s egoistic desires.
In an Ainsworth Strange Situation, a child ignores the mother when she leaves and upon return. The mother is most likely:
Impatient or over-stimulating
Effects of maternal depression on infant development
Higher risk for pathology and may show symptoms of disturbance when they are as little as 3 months old
Who are the most likely perpetrators of child abuse?
The child’s parent
Adult Attachment Interview - 3 Categories
“Autonomous”
“Dismissing”- describe parents in positive terms without offering evidence to back it up
“Pre-occupied”- Confused, angry, passively preoccupied
“Unresolved/Disorganized”- Unresolved experience due to loss or abuse; usually used in conjuncion with the other 3.
Differential Reinforcement
Reinforcing desired behavior and IGNORING undesired behavior
Negative Reinforcement example
Restrictions are removed each time a child does a chore
Working memory is effected by aging. This is primarily due to what?
Decline in executive function
What test is NOT considered a fair test of intellectual ability?
Woodcock Johnson III
A primary goal of Munichin’s Structural Family Therapy?
Replace rigid and diffuse boundaries with clear boundaries
Which aspect of PERCEPTION develops FIRST in an infant?
A preference for faces over other visual patterns
Piaget attributed the animistic thinking of kids in the preoperational stage to what? EGOCENTRISM
EGOCENTRISM
Piaget’s Concrete Operation Stage is what?
Ages 7-11 years old
Second order conditioning facts
The second conditioned response will not be as strong as the first
One criticism of anger management training for kids is what?
It places too much emphasis on the individual (does not take into effect societal factors)
According to Piaget, the ability to think abstractly is evident at about what age?
11
What enhances the effectiveness of punishment?
- Admin immediately after target behavior occurs
- When applied consistently
- When the relationship between behavior and punishment is verbally clarified
- When warning occurs first
- When all positive reinforcements for the targeted behavior are withheld
What are we looking for when conducting a Functional Behavioral Analysis?
Conditions that control a behavior
Over-correction
Used to eliminate an undesirable behavior- involves having person correct the consequences of their behavior AND/OR practice corrective behaviors (positive practice)
What type of technique would be good to change sleep behaviors?
Stimulus Control - based on the idea that increasing or strengthening links between certain cues and behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
IE only sleep in bed for sleeping; get up at same time each morning, avoid napping, get up after 20 mins
PreMack Principal
Involves REINFORCEMENT a low frequency behavior (homework) with a high frequency behavior (video games) in order to increase the low-frequency behavior.
At what age to children start to define themselves: “I am friendly” or “I am shy.”
End of Middle
Which theorist would prescribe a client with insomnia to wash the floors for 2 hours each time they woke up in the night?
Milton Erickson, who talked about “ORDEALS” by him and Haley
Klein vs Anna Freud and children’s play
Klein thought kids play was “free association”, while Anna freud argued that it was kids “acting out”
Escape conditioning
A negative reinforcement in which a behavior occurs because it allows the subject to escape an undesireable stimulus or event. (Kid apologizing after hitting other kids and ending up in time out).
For retaining information in Long-
Term Memory, which of the following are most critical?
Visual Representation, Time, Repetition, or Meaningful Organization?
Meaningful organization
Vygotsky viewed the self-talk among children to what?
A means of self-guidance and self-instruction
To what principal does an operant psychologist attribute a complex series of behaviors?
CHAINING
With regard to predicting job performance, how well does “g” factor (General Cognitive Ability)
It is predictive of performance across a wide variety of jobs
If a mother reinforces both kid’s homework and piano practice separately with coins, and then withdraws the coins given for piano, what will happen to each of the behaviors?
The piano practice will decrease but the homework will increase due to “behavioral contrast” phenomenon.
Halophrasic versus Telegraphic speech
“Milk” versus “Want Milk”
What do mother’s tend to remember about their children?
Birth weight
Implicit Memory
Unconscious, Automatic; IE procedural memory like buttoning pants in the morning
KUBLER ROSS’s stages of Dying
- Denial 2.) Anger 3) Bargaining 4.) Depression 5.) Acceptance
Gradual decline in intensity, frequency, and duration of a response is called what?
HABITUATION
No such thing as fading
Research comparisons of monolingual and bilingual children have shown what with regard to inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility
Bilingual children outperform monolingual children on both measures
In 1979, it was ruled that IQ tests could no longer be utilized to do what?
Use them to decide if African American children should be placed in special education classes
Tolman research with rats in mazes showed what?
That reinforcement is not always necessary for learning
Time sampling
Observing for pre-specified time periods
Time series design
When the dependent variable is assessed at regular intervals before and after a treatment
Multiple baseline design
Using single-subject design that involves sequentially applying treatments across SETTINGS
PreMack Principal
A principle of reinforcement which states that an opportunity to engage in more probable behaviors (or activities) will reinforce less probable behaviors (or activities). … In this study, highly preferred activities were effective as reinforcers for less preferred behaviors.
Mom’s can usually distinguish between which 3 cries of their baby?
Hungry, Angry, Pain
Reciprocol inhibition
Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus. FOR EXAMPLE, giving a cat food while introducing a fear-inducing stimulus.
