Leadership Terms: Multiple Choice Format Flashcards
A person’s perceived ratio of inputs and outcomes, as compared to his/her perception of another person’s ratio of inputs and outcomes.
a. Reinforcement
b. Motivation through consequence (MTC)
c. Focal Person
d. Comparison Ratio
Comparison Ratio
Motivational theory which assumes that people value fair treatment when comparing themselves with others, and that the perception of inequity motivates people to take action.
a. Operant conditioning
b. Positive Reinforcement
c. Equity Theory
d. Inequity
Equity Theory
The organizational leader who directly supervises, manages, and leads the employees involved in a given situation of case study.
a. Actor/Observer Bias
b. Focal Leader
c. Focal Person
d. None of the above
Focal Leader
Any individual who perceives equity or inequity by comparing himself/herself with others.
a. Focal Person
b. Transactional Leadership
c. Transformational Leadership
d. None of the above
Focal Person
Exists when someone perceives that the ratio of his/her outcomes to inputs is not equal to the ratio of someone else’s outcomes to inputs.
a. Inputs
b. Outcomes
c. Inequity
d. Self Regulation
Inequity
In the employee-employer exchange, this is what the focal person perceives are his contributions to the exchange, for which he expects a just return. Some examples include work effort, experience, education, training, and intelligence.
a. Focal Person
b. Comparison Ratio
c. Inputs
d. None of the above
Inputs
Theory dealing with perceptions of fairness in organizations
a. Equity Theory
b. Organizational Justice Theory
c. Law of effect theory
d. Apology Effect
Organizational Justice Theory
In the employee-employer exchange, this is what the employee perceives are the rewards he receives for his services. Examples include pay, benefits, praise, and promotion.
a. Outcomes
b. Reference Source
c. Reinforcement
d. Reward Contingency
Outcomes
The person or group that focal person uses to evaluate the equity or inequity of his/her exchange relationship.
a. Inequity
b. Focal Leader
c. Operant Response
d. None of the above
None of the above
The study of human interaction, including the study of attraction, attitude formation, influence (of which leadership is a part), and group dynamics.
a. Behavior
b. Law of effect
c. Social Psychology
d. Observational Learning
Social Psychology
The tendency to attribute one’s own successes to one’s abilities, and to blame failures on external factors beyond one’s control
a. Self Serving Bias
b. Internal Attribution
c. Attribution
d. None of the above
Self Serving Bias
The tendency for a leader to punish a follower more severely if the follower’s behavior has negative consequences.
a. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
b. Negative Reinforcement
c. Negative Outcome Bias
d. None of the above
Negative Outcome Bias
The process of assigning blame or credit for a person’s behavior (including one’s own behavior) to that person’s abilities or lack of abilities.
a. Internal Attribution
b. External Attribution
c. Attribution
d. None of the above
Internal Attribution
The tendency to overvalue internal factors in explaining someone’s behavior, while undervaluing external factors
a. Internal Attribution
b. External Attribution
c. Fundamental Attribution Error
d. Consistency
Fundamental Attribution Error
The process of assigning blame or credit for a person’s behavior (including one’s on behavior) to external factors beyond the person’s abilities or lack of abilities.
a. Consistency
b. External Attribution
c. Internal Attribution
d. Distinctiveness
External Attribution
The process of making an attribution about a person based on how well (or poorly) he/she does on a variety of different tasks.
a. Distinctiveness
b. Consistency
c. Fundamental Attribution Error
d. None of the above
Distinctiveness
The process of making an attribution based on how a person performed the same task on other occasions.
a. Self Serving Bias
b. Distinctiveness
c. Consistency
d. None of the above
Consistency
The process of making an attribution based on how other people perform a specific task
a. Consensus
b. Consistency
c. Distinctiveness
d. None of the above
Consensus
The process of making inferences and judgment’s about the cause of people’s behavior
a. Self Serving Bias
b. Internal Attribution
c. Attribution
d. Consensus
Attribution
The leader’s tendency to be less likely to punish the follower who says he/she is sorry for his/her behavior
a. Apology Effect
b. Distinctiveness
c. Behavior
d. None of the above
Apology Effect
The common tendency for the actor in a particular situation to blame external factors for his or her unsuccessful behavior while, concurrently, an observer tends to blame internal factors for
same behavior
a. Self serving bias
b. Negative outcome bias
c. Apology effect
d. Actor/observer Bias
Actor/Observer Bias
What people do or say. It is related to but not the same as what one thinks, how one feels, one’s underlying attitude, or overall performance in accomplishing tasks.
a. Consequence
b. On task Behavior
c. Behavior
d. None of these
Behavior
That which typically results in unsuccessful task accomplishment.
a. Behavior
b. On Task behavior
c. Off Task Behavior
d. None on these
Off Task Behavior
That which typically results in successful task accomplishment
a. Off task behavior
b. On task behavior
c. Behavior
d. None of these
On Task Behavior
Anything that follows a behavior (e.g. a person sticks his finger into a light socket and gets shocked.
a. Behavior
b. Motivation through consequence
c. Operant conditioning
d. Consequence
Consequence
When reinforcement follows every correct or desired behavior. This results in the quick learning of new behavior, but poor sustained behavior when the reinforcement is removed.
a. Continuous Reinforcement schedule
b. Partial reinforcement schedules
c. Positive Reinforcement
d. None of the above
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
A collection of three theories that, in different ways, explain how consequences that follow behavior control that behavior. The theories are operant conditioning, observation learning (aka social or vicarious learning), and self-regulation.
a. Consequence
b. Extinction
c. Motivation Through Consequence (MTC)
d. None of the above
Motivation Through Consequence (MTC)
A theoretical model originating from psychologist B.F. Skinner that has changed over time. In this lesson it means “punishment”, Skinner’s original definition.
a. Positive Reinforcement
b. Negative Reinforcement
c. Partial Reinforcement
d. Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
A method of learning by watching the behavior of others and the associated consequences. Includes concepts such as vicarious extinction-vicarious learning, vicarious punishment, and vicarious reinforcement.
a. Observational Learning
b. Operant conditioning
c. Behavior
d. None of these
Observational Learning
An approach to learning and motivation based on the relationship between person’s behavior and the consequences they subsequently personally experience.
a. Behavior
b. Operant Conditioning
c. Observational Learning
d. None of the above
Operant Conditioning
Any behavioral reaction that someone undertakes voluntarily in response to a demand or cue from his/her environment.
a. Operant conditioning
b. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
c. Observational learning
d. Operant Response
Operant Response
When reinforcements are administered irregularly by either time or by the number of correct or desired responses. This sustains behavior over long periods of time, as compared to continuous reinforcement.
a. Fixed Ratio Schedule
b. Negative Reinforcement
c. Partial Reinforcement Schedules
d. Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
the effect of increasing the future desired behavior by the presentation of a positive or pleasant consequence following current behavior.
a. Partial Reinforcement Schedules
b. Reinforcement
c. Positive Reinforcement
d. Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Any consequence that increases the occurrence of a behavior in the future.
a. Positive Reinforcement
b. Reward Contingency
c. Reinforcement
d. None of the above
Reinforcement
The process of controlling one’s own behavior by comparing one’s behavior to one’s personal standards and subsequently apply internal consequences.
a. Motivation
b. Operant Conditioning
c. Self-Regulation
d. Reward Contingency
Self-Regulation
Involves learning by comparing oneself to others.
a. On Task Behavior
b. Social Comparison Processes
c. Self Regulation
d. Motivation through Consequence (MTC)
Social Comparison Processes
The presentation of reinforcements irregularly around an average time (e.g., after one day, three days, and two days, averaging reinforcement every two days). This is a powerful way to sustain desired behavior for long periods of time.
a. Fixed Interval Schedule
b. Reward Contingency
c. Variable Ratio Schedule
d. Variable Interval Schedule
Variable Interval Schedule
The presentation of reinforcements irregularly around an average number of correct or desired responses (e.g., the way a slot machine pays out). This is a powerful way to sustain desired behavior for long periods of time.
a. Variable Ratio Schedule
b. Variable interval Schedule
c. Reward Contingency
d. Fixed Interval Schedule
Variable Ratio Schedule
When future behavior decreases in frequency because there is no consequence to a current behavior.
a. Law of effect
b. Extinction
c. Fixed Ratio Schedule
d. Variable Ratio Schedule
Extinction
When reinforcers are presented after corrected or desired responses on a fixed time schedule (e.g. daily, weekly, monthly, etc.).
a. Fixed Ratio Schedule
b. Fixed Interval Schedule
c. Law of Effect
d. Variable Internal Schedule
Fixed Interval schedule
The presentation of reinforcements after a fixed number of correct or desired responses (e.g. after every third arrest).
a. Variable Interval Schedule
b. Fixed Interval Schedule
c. Reinforcement
d. Fixed Ratio Schedule
Fix Ratio Schedule
A phenomenon that explains why some behaviors are repeated while others stop.
a. Behavior
b. Motivation
c. Law of Effect
d. Operant Conditioning
Law of Effect
Anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior.
a. Law of Effect
b. Self Regulation
c. Motivation
d. Social Comparison Processes
Motivation
An individual’s belief that he/she can perform a task to an acceptable level.
a. Goal Setting
b. Expectancy
c. Goal
d. Individual behaviors
Expectancy
Claims that motivation is a function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
a. Performance Objectives
b. Goal Setting
c. Reward aka Reward outcome
d. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
A desired end state.
a. Upward leadership
b. Individual behaviors
c. Goal
d. Performance Objectives aka Performance Outcomes
Goal
Selecting desired end states as a way to motivate human behavior
a. Performance Objectives aka Performance Outcomes
b. Instrumentality
c. Reward
d. Setting Goal
Setting Goal
The knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual possesses.
a. Reward aka Reward Outcome
b. Performance Objectives aka Performance Outcomes
c. Valence
d. Individual Behaviors
Individual Behaviors
The belief that achieving an acceptable level of performance will result of the task at hand.
a. Performance Objective
b. Instrumentality
c. Individual Behaviors
d. Valence
Instrumentality
An acceptable level of accomplishment of the task at hand.
a. Reward / Reward Outcome
b. Performance Objective aka Performance Outcomes
c. Individual Behaviors
d. Goal Setting
Reward / Reward Outcome
The value a recipient places on a reward offered in exchange for completing a task.
a. Rewards
b. Performance Objective aka Performance Outcomes
c. Goal Setting
d. Valence
Valence
Organizational member who demonstrates a high level of critical thinking but low levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
a. Derailment
b. Conformist Follower
c. Follower
d. Alienated Follower
Alienated Follower
Organizational member who demonstrates a low level of critical thinking and a high level of engagement in the organizational mission.
a. Followership
b. Conformist Follower
c. Follower
d. Exemplary Follower
Conformist Follower
Condition describing what happens to individuals who eventually fail as leaders, despite performing well for a long time in followership and junior leadership roles.
a. Passive Follower
b. Followership
c. Derailment
d. Upward leadership
Derailment
Organizational member who demonstrates a high level of critical thinking and high levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
a. Exemplary Follower
b. Follower
c. Followership
d. Passive Follower
Exemplary Follower
A collaborator with leaders in the work of organizations.
a. Followership
b. Pragmatist Follower
c. Follower
d. Conformist Follower
Follower
The role of followers in a leadership process: it means the act of committing and working cooperatively with other followers and leaders to achieve shared goals by harmonizing individual roles and goals with the larger vision of the group (organization, community, or society), and may include acting like a leader when required by the situation.
a. Upward Leadership
b. Pragmatist Follower
c. Followership
d. Alternated Follower
Followership
Concept that describes an organization’s resources and how an individual might focus solely on their rights and needs versus respecting the common good, while acknowledging the mutual responsibilities he/she has with others.
a. Derailment
b. Organizational Commons
c. Alternated Follower
d. Pragmatist Follower
Organizational Commons
Organizational member who demonstrates a low level of critical thinking and low levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
a. Passive Follower
b. Pragmatist Follower
c. Follower
d. Exemplary Follower
Passive Follower
Organizational member who demonstrates varying levels of critical thinking and varying levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
a. Pragmatist Follower
b. Passive Follower
c. Follower
d. Exemplary Follower
Pragmatist Follower
Demonstrating exemplary leadership behaviors irrespective of organizational role.
a. Conformist Follower
b. Alternative Follower
c. Derailment
d. Upward Leadership
Upward Leadership
Unproductive behavior that hinders the group from achieving organizational objectives.
a. Group
b. Group Norms
c. Group Roles
d. Blocking Roles
Blocking Roles
Subgroups of individuals within a larger group who share common goals, values, and expectations sometimes at odds with other subgroups and perhaps the larger group’s goals, values and expectations.
a. Group Structures
b. Group Role
c. Group
d. Cliques
Cliques
The strength of the bonds linking individuals to and in the group. It is sometimes referred to as the glue that keeps a group together.
a. Group Structure
b. Heterogeneous
c. Cohesion
d. Team
Cohesion
Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other while achieving a common purpose, mission, or task.
a. Group Structure
b. Group
c. Group Roles
d. Team
Group
The social standards that regulate group members’ behaviors. It regulate the group’s activities by identifying what is acceptable and what is not.
a. Cohesion
b. Group Roles
c. Group Structure
d. Group Norms
Group Norms
A coherent set of behaviors expected of people who occupy specific positions within a group.
a. Group Roles
b. Group Structure
c. Team
d. Group Norms
Group Roles
The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and relations among members of a group.
a. Team
b. Group Structure
c. Group Norms
d. Social Loafing
Group Structure
A quality exhibited when members of the group are diversified in terms of their abilities, skills, resources, and/or social makeup that are required to accomplish the group’s task or mission.
a. Homogeneous
b. Heterogeneous
c. Relationship Building
d. Interdependency
Heterogeneous
- A quality exhibited when members of the group are similar in terms of their abilities, skills, resources, and/or social makeup that are required to accomplish the group’s task or mission.
a. Homogeneous
b. Role Ambiguity
c. Role Conflict
d. Role Clarity
Homogeneous
A characteristic of people being somewhat mutually dependent to accomplish a group task or goal.
a. Role Ambiguity
b. Role Clarity
c. Interdependency
d. Group Norms
Interdependency
The position of a group member who performs behaviors that improve the nature and quality of interpersonal relations among other group members.
a. Relationship-Building Role
b. Role Clarity
c. Status
d. Task Facilitating Role
Relationship-Building Role
The perception and uncertainty due to unclear expectations by a group member accurately performs his/her assigned purpose in the group.
a. Role Clarity
b. Role Ambiguity
c. Status
d. Team
Role Ambiguity
The perception and clear understanding demonstrated when a group member accurately performs his/her assigned purpose in the group.
a. Role conflict
b. Role Clarity
c. Social Loafing
d. Task-Facilitating Role
Role Clarity
A state of tension, distress, or uncertainty caused by inconsistent or conflicting expectations associated with one’s role in the group
A. Social Loafing
B. Role Ambiguity
C. Role Conflict
D. Group Role
Role Conflict
The reduction of individual effort exerted when people work in groups as compared to when they work alone.
a. Status
b. Team
c. Cohesion
d. Social Loafing
Social Loafing
The level of rights and privileges that members have within the group.
a. Team
b. Group Norms
c. Status
d. Group Roles
Status
Any position in a group occupied by a member who performs behaviors that promote completion of tasks and activities.
a. Group Norms
b. Group Roles
c. Cliques
d. Task-Facilitating Role
Task-Facilitating Role
Group members that are so tightly coupled that each member’s outcomes are inextricable tied to each other’s outcome.
a. Group Role
b. Role Clarity
c. Team
d. Group Structure
Team
A group’s judgment about its own capability to perform a specific task.
a. Task Cohesion
b. Social Cohesion
c. Collective or Group Efficacy
d. Groupthink
Collective or Group Efficacy
Six readily observable group behavior patterns, the presence of which indicate a high level of group cohesion.
a. Group Cohesion
b. GroupThink
c. Social Cohesion
d. Common Indicators of Group Cohesion
Common Indicators of Group Cohesion
The sum of forces that attracts members to a group, provides resistance to leaving it, and motivates them to be active in it.
a. Group Cohesion
b. Social Cohesion
c. Task Cohesion
d. Groupthink
Group Cohesion
An instrument that measures task and social cohesion of action.
a. Task Cohesion
b. Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
c. Collective or Group Efficacy
d. Common Indicators of Group Cohesion
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
A process where a group strives for unanimity rather than objectively appraising and selecting the best course of action.
a. Social Cohesion
b. Groupthink
c. Task Cohesion
d. Group Cohesion
Groupthink
The degree to which the members of a group like each other and enjoy personal satisfaction from being members of the group.
a. Task Cohesion
b. Social Cohesion
c. Group Cohesion
d. Groupthink
Social Cohesion
The degree to which a group works together to achieve a specific and identifiable goal.
a. Task Cohesion
b. Social Cohesion
c. Group Cohesion
d. None of the above
Task Cohesion
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when a leader issues vague instructions to subordinates groups, allowing separate groups to interpret their meaning and how to accomplish the task.
a. Avoidance
b. Ambiguous Work Assignment
c. Physical Separation
d. Forcing
Ambiguous Work Assignment
A conflict management strategy where the leader monitors the conflict, but does not get involved in its resolution, allowing the conflict to run its course and/or those in conflict to resolve it.
a. Forcing
b. Liaison Group
c. Avoidance
d. Frequency of Interaction
Avoidance
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when two or more groups fight over limited resources (e.g. money, people, and facilities).
a. Forcing
b. Frequency of Interaction
c. Physical Separation
d. Competition Over Scare Resources
Competition Over Scare Resources
A conflict management strategy where a leader mandates a solution to groups that are experiencing conflict with each other.
a. Forcing
b. Physical Separation
c. Problem Solving
d. Tangible Nature of Work
Forcing
A source of intergroup conflict brought about by little or no interaction between groups
a. Goal Orientation
b. Liaison Group
c. Problem Solving
d. Frequency of Interaction
Frequency of Interaction
A source of intergroup conflict where the actions or tone in a group in pursuit of its goals generates conflict with another group in the pursuit of its goal because the groups don’t share the same goals.
a. Problem Solving
b. Goal Orientation
c. Liaison Group
d. Avoidance
Goal Orientation
A proactive conflict management strategy where a leader acts to prevent or reduce the chance of conflict by forming a group with representatives from all groups to identify and resolve potential conflict.
a. Liaison Group
b. Group
c. Groupthink
d. Superordinate Goal
Liaison Group
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when groups are not located together. Physical separation keeps them from getting to know each other very well.
a. Problem Solving
b. Tangible Nature of Work
c. Superordinate Goal
d. Physical Separation
Physical Separation
A reactive conflict management strategy where a leader (or third-party mediator) bring members of conflicting groups together to identify, discuss, and resolve intergroup conflict after conflict has developed.
a. Problem Solving
b. Time Orientation
c. Tangible Nature of Work
d. Competition Over Scare Resources
Problem Solving
A conflict management strategy where a leader creates an overarching goal that requires conflicting groups to achieve an objective critically important to all groups, but that can only be achieved through intergroup cooperation.
a. Tangible Nature of Work
b. Time Orientation
c. Superordinate Goal
d. Competition Over Scare Resources
Superordinate Goal
A source of intergroup conflict created by the way in which work products are measured. One group may generate an easily measureable product while another generates a product that is more difficult or impossible to measure.
a. Time Orientation
b. Tangible Nature of Work
c. Superordinate Goal
d. Competition Over Scare Resources
Tangible Nature of Work
A source of intergroup conflict where one group’s perception of how long work should take is different from another group’s perception of how long it should take.
a. Problem Solving
b. Time Orientation
c. Superordinate Goal
d. Physical Separation
Time Orientation
