Language and Linguistics Flashcards
the branch of grammar devoted to the study of the structure or form of words, primarily using the morpheme construct
Morphology
the study of the rules governing the combination of words to form sentences
Syntax
unit of meaning, ex: happy is one word, it has two syllables (ha-ppy) and contains only one unit of meaning; it is one of these; unhappy would be two of these: un and happy
Morpheme
- Between 12 and 26 months, children expected to have MLUm’s (mean length of utterance measured in morphemes) of about 1.75 morphemes (range 1-2).
- This gradually increases as they acquire more language
Brown’s Stages of Development: Stage 1
- In this stage after having built a 5—60 word vocab, children acquire the ability to produce Stage 1 sentence types. Communicative intent includes examples of what the child might have said if they were mature enough to talk in full sentences
- In this stage, phrases will be used such as: that car, more juice, no wee wee, no more, birdie go
Brown’s Stages of Development: Stage 1
27-30 months, present progressive (-ing), in, on, s-plurals (regular plurals), ex: it going, in box, on box, my cars
Brown’s Stage 2
31-34 months, irregular past tense, ‘s possessive, uncontactable copula (the full form of the verb to be when it is the only verb in a sentence); ex: me fell down, man’s book, is it Allison?, yes it is, was Allison?, Yes it was.
Brown’s Stage 3
35-40 months, articles, regular past tense, third person regular, present tense. Ex: a ball on the book, she jumped, the puppy chews it, Jason likes you
Brown’s Stage 4
41-46+ months, third person irregular, uncontactable auxiliary (the full form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence), contractible copula (the shortened form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is the only verb in a sentence), contractible auxiliary (the shortened form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence). Ex: she does, he has, are they swimming? Were you hungry? I’m not laughing; she is, she was laughing; not me. She’s ready. They’re here. Daddy’s got tomatoes. My dogs lost his collar. They’re coming. He’s going. I’m opening it up. We’re hiding. It’s freezing.
Brown’s Stage 5
we have two very different ways of getting better in a language. Acquisition is a sub-conscious process (a feeling). Acquisition gives us fluency and accuracy. Children need 100% acquisition; adults need 95% acquisition. Grammatical sequencing is not necessary; it is harmful
acquisition learning process
we acquire language in one way: when we understand messages (comprehensible input). when we understand what people say, not how they say it.
Language acquisition
motivation, self-esteem, anxiety
Affective filter hypothesis
native tongue affects grammar and pronunciation
Negative transfer
- structure and form of words in a language
- a branch of linguistics that deals with the structure and form of words in a language
morphology
words that have a clear meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, considered
content words
do not have a clear lexical meaning, but do serve a functional purpose in a language; (considered a closed class; we do not add new words to this class) ex: conjunctions, articles, prepositions, and pronouns
Function words
broad term, includes phonemic awareness; identify and manipulate larger parts of spoken language; alliteration, rhyme, words, and syllables
Phonological Awareness
narrower, subcategory of phonological aw. Identify and manipulate individual sounds of spoken words. Understanding that speech is composed of individual sounds and noticing and manipulating the sounds in oral language. Emphasis is on the sound of the spoken word. Understanding that words are made of smaller units called phonemes
Phonemic Awareness
focus on the letter-sound relationships in written words
Phonics and Spelling
the relationship between phonemes and graphemes. It involves blending sounds made from letters to recognize words. It teaches students to decode unfamiliar words. The emphasis is on the spelling patterns of words. Understanding phonic rules means students are able to sound words out.
Phonics
two consonants that go together to make one sound
Consonant Digraphs
two vowels that go together to make one sound
Vowel Digraphs
when a word or phrase from one language is used in another language. Ex: silk was originally a Chinese word
Borrowing
British and American words can be spelled differently
British spelling
refers to switching back and forth between two different languages in one conversation
Code-switching
context helps comprehension because meaning is supported by the physical or social nature of the conversation
Context-Embedded
a language that originates form a simplified language (pidgin) or a combination of other languages
Creole
a form of speech belonging to a particular region. Ex: Cockney is a _______ of English
Dialect
the art of debate based on reason. “Knowledge,” is referred to as the highest stage of our mind and is referred to as dialectic in the central book of the Republic
Dialectical Knowledge
the representation of the sounds of English by written or printed symbols
English Orthography
the history of how a word and its meaning formed
Etymology
a linguistics term to alleviate references to gender specifics. Ex: Flight Attendant and Mail Carrier
Gender Neutral
any language can develop a grammatical nuance, not always noticeable to listeners
Grammatical Change
also called word changes; occur more rapidly than grammatical changes
Lexical changes
a phenomenon that occurred mostly in the 15th-17th centuries. It involved all the long vowels in English- the lower vowels were pronounced higher, and the higher vowels changed into diphthongs.
Great vowel shift
happens when someone thoughtfully tries to avoid making a mistake in language usage
Hypercorrection
words or expressions used specifically by a select group, trade, or profession. It’s a shorthand between members of a select group of people. Ex: AMA= against medical advice
Jargon
factors that impact language acquisition include: self-confidence, nervousness, anxiety, and boredom. Positive environments facilitate the successful learning of a second language
Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis
we acquire language only when we understand what is said, not how it is said
Krashen’s comprehensible Input Hypothesis
the study of language and its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics
Linguistics
the smallest semantically meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided. It is not a word and cannot stand alone. Every word is made up of one or more of these.
Morpheme
the patterns of word formation in a particular language, including inflection, derivation, and composition
Morphology
proposes that when humans are born, they contain the basic structures to learn any language. The human brain is like a “little black box,” ready to be molded by experiences with the outside world through the senses.
Noam Chomsky Universal Grammar
a type of semantic change that takes place when a word’s meaning diminishes to refer to only part of the original meaning. Ex: centuries ago, “girl,” used to mean a child of either sex. Over time the meaning has turned into “a female child”
Narrowing
the branch of linguistics involving three major communication skills: 1) Using language for different purposes 2) Changing language according to the needs of the listener or situation 3) Following rules in conversation such as taking turns in speaking
Pragmatics
the study of the meaning of words by linguists. Ex: “love” can have many different meanings
Semantics
informal words, phrases, and uses that are often restricted to certain contexts, professions, or class. Ex: hit the road
Slang
accepted throughout English-speaking countries. Spoken with any accent with few variations in grammar.
Standard English Dialect
refers to word order to convey a certain meaning. Ex: “to your farm we are going.” Would be an example of awkward usage. It’s understandable, but it sounds odd.
Syntax
non-native lingua francas, arise quickly for functional communication (like trade or labor), simplified grammar of native language, begin as restricted (used only for certain functions), others become extended (used for all areas of life), they can be passed down through generations
Pidgins
have native speakers, usually starts as a pidgin, becomes children’s native language, some are based on English such as Jamaican, some based on French such as Haitian, and some based on Spanish
Creole
the study of word origins and derivations and how words change over time
Etymology
two or more words having the same spelling or pronunciation, but different meanings and origins
Homonyms
two words that mean something similar
Synonyms
words whose sound is the same, but the spelling and meaning are different from one another. Ex: blew and blue
Heterographs
words with multiple pronunciations that are spelled the same. Ex: record and record
Heterophones
two words that are spelled the same, but not necessarily pronounced the same and having different meanings and origins. Ex: bass and bass
Homographs
two words that have the same pronunciations but different meanings, origins, or spelling. Ex: new and knew
Homophones
pre-reading “pseudo reading”, 6 months-6 years (preschool), child “pretends” to read, retells story when looking at pages of a book previous read to let them, names letters of the alphabet, recognizes some signs; prints own name; plays with books, pencils, and paper.
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage Zero
initial reading an decoding. 6-7 years old 1st grade and beginning 2nd grade; child learns relation between letters and sounds and between printed and spoken words; child is able to read simple text containing high frequency words and phonically regular words; uses skill and insight to “sound out” new one syllable words
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage One
Confirmation and fluency, 7-8 years old 2nd and 3rd grade, child reads simple, familiar stories and selections with increasing fluency. This is done by consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning context in the reading of familiar stories and selections.
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage Two
Reading for learning the new, 9-13 years old 4th-8th grade Phase A (intermediate 4th-6th) Phase B (7th-9th), reading is used to learn new ideas, to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, generally from one viewpoint
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage Three
multiple viewpoints, 15-17 years old, 10th-12th grade, reading widely from a broad range of complex materials, both expository and narrative with a variety of viewpoints
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage Four
Construction and reconstruction 18+ years old, college and beyond, reading is used for one’s own needs and purposes (professional and personal); reading serves to integrate one’s knowledge with that of others, to synthesize it and to create new knowledge. It is rapid and efficient.
Chall’s Stages of Reading Development: Stage 5
fluent readers read at an appropriate rate of this for their age or grade level (usually measured in words per minute or wpm). They visually scan 3+ words ahead when reading aloud and maintain smooth visual tracking line to line.
Speed
fluent readers have highly automatic word recognition and the skills to sound out unfamiliar words; dysfluent readers make frequent mistakes, have poor word recognition, skip words, substitute similar-appearing words, and struggle with unfamiliar words
Accuracy
fluent readers use this (pitch, stress, and timing) to convey meaning when they read aloud; dysfluent readers typically use less expression, read word by word instead of in phrases or chunks, and fail to use intonation or pauses to “mark” punctuation (e.g. periods, commas, and question marks)
Prosody
in 1st and 2nd grade, the focus is on phonics, learning to sound out words, and increasing sight word recognition. By grades 2-3 these skills have solidified and reading becomes more effortless and fluent.
Reading fluency begins
by grades 3-4, the focus shifts from learning to read to “reading to learn,” and the students build vocabulary and knowledge through reading. If reading is less effortful, there are more mental resources available for comprehension, analysis, and critical thinking.
Reading fluency importance
children with poor fluency often do not recognize and acquire linguistic patterns with the same ease as others. This is particularly true for children with language-based learning disabilities, such as dyslexia
Reading fluency struggles
children can improve their fluency with explicit, systematic instruction. Treatment should be individually designed to address specific underlying weaknesses, which may include: phonological awareness, phonological memory, word attack skills, and linguistic retrieval.
Reading fluency treatment
- Literacy assessment is a social process, not a technical activity. Accordingly, all student texts are assessed by knowledgeable humans
- Literacy assessments always assume a classroom learning context; such assessments help stakeholders focus on strengths, areas of concern, goals for improvement, and actions to be taken. The assessment of literacy development and/or achievement therefore does not rely solely on standardized tests, which are especially disruptive to instruction
Assessing Literacy
- Literacy assessment is meaningful to the learner
- It includes more than cognitive activities; it also includes a range of practices and perceptions, including beliefs about literacy, dispositions toward literacy, and self-efficacy regarding literacy
- The assessments are valid only to the extent that they help students learn
Assessing Literacy
- They are purposeful; therefore, assessment designed for one purpose- for example, program assessment- are not used for another- for example, individual assessment
- Literacy assessment practices embrace several kinds of diversity including diversity in languages, in learning styles, and in rates and routes of learning
- They vary and include multiple measures of different domains, including processes, texts, and reflection. Accordingly, no single measure informs literacy instruction.
Assessing Literacy
- Select a sample of 100 words and count the number of sentences
- Divide the number of sentences into the number of words to find the average sentence length
- Count the number of “big words” (3 syllables or more) and divide 100 by that number to find the percentage of big words
- Add the average sentence length and percentage of big words together and multiply the sum by 0.4 to find the result
Calculating Reading Level: Gunning Fox Index
- Select a sample of 100 words and count the number of sentences
- Divide the number of words (100) by the number of sentences and multiply the result by 1.015. save the result and call it x
- Count total number of syllables in the sample, divide by the total number of words (100) and multiply by 84.6. call this number y
- Add x to y and subtract the sum from 206.835. result is the reading ease score
Calculating Reading Level: The Flesch Formula
- Find a 100-word sample and count the number of sentences. Divide into the number of words to find the average sentence length. Call this number x
- count the number of syllables and call that number y
- Multiply x by 0.0778 and multiply y by 0.0455, then add the two results and call it z
- Find grade level of the sample by subtracting 2.2029 from z
- Find the reading age by adding 2.7971 to z
Calculate Reading Level: Power Sumner Kearl Formula
underlying set of characteristics from all languages over the world
Universal Grammar
can make something negative, make something plural, male/female, definite/indefinite, past/present
All languages
