Language and Linguistics

Question 1

the branch of grammar devoted to the study of the structure or form of words, primarily using the morpheme construct

Answer 1

Morphology

Question 2

the study of the rules governing the combination of words to form sentences

Answer 2

Syntax

Question 3

unit of meaning, ex: happy is one word, it has two syllables (ha-ppy) and contains only one unit of meaning; it is one of these; unhappy would be two of these: un and happy

Answer 3

Morpheme

Question 4

1. Between 12 and 26 months, children expected to have MLUm’s (mean length of utterance measured in morphemes) of about 1.75 morphemes (range 1-2).
2. This gradually increases as they acquire more language

Answer 4

Brown’s Stages of Development: Stage 1

Question 5

1. In this stage after having built a 5—60 word vocab, children acquire the ability to produce Stage 1 sentence types. Communicative intent includes examples of what the child might have said if they were mature enough to talk in full sentences
2. In this stage, phrases will be used such as: that car, more juice, no wee wee, no more, birdie go

Answer 5

Brown’s Stages of Development: Stage 1

Question 6

27-30 months, present progressive (-ing), in, on, s-plurals (regular plurals), ex: it going, in box, on box, my cars

Answer 6

Brown’s Stage 2

Question 7

31-34 months, irregular past tense, ‘s possessive, uncontactable copula (the full form of the verb to be when it is the only verb in a sentence); ex: me fell down, man’s book, is it Allison?, yes it is, was Allison?, Yes it was.

Answer 7

Brown’s Stage 3

Question 8

35-40 months, articles, regular past tense, third person regular, present tense. Ex: a ball on the book, she jumped, the puppy chews it, Jason likes you

Answer 8

Brown’s Stage 4

Question 9

41-46+ months, third person irregular, uncontactable auxiliary (the full form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence), contractible copula (the shortened form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is the only verb in a sentence), contractible auxiliary (the shortened form of the verb ‘to be’ when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence). Ex: she does, he has, are they swimming? Were you hungry? I’m not laughing; she is, she was laughing; not me. She’s ready. They’re here. Daddy’s got tomatoes. My dogs lost his collar. They’re coming. He’s going. I’m opening it up. We’re hiding. It’s freezing.

Answer 9

Brown’s Stage 5

Question 10

we have two very different ways of getting better in a language. Acquisition is a sub-conscious process (a feeling). Acquisition gives us fluency and accuracy. Children need 100% acquisition; adults need 95% acquisition. Grammatical sequencing is not necessary; it is harmful

Answer 10

acquisition learning process

Question 11

we acquire language in one way: when we understand messages (comprehensible input). when we understand what people say, not how they say it.

Answer 11

Language acquisition

Question 12

motivation, self-esteem, anxiety

Answer 12

Affective filter hypothesis

Question 13

native tongue affects grammar and pronunciation

Answer 13

Negative transfer

Question 14

1. structure and form of words in a language
2. a branch of linguistics that deals with the structure and form of words in a language

Answer 14

morphology

Question 15

words that have a clear meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, considered

Answer 15

content words

Question 16

do not have a clear lexical meaning, but do serve a functional purpose in a language; (considered a closed class; we do not add new words to this class) ex: conjunctions, articles, prepositions, and pronouns

Answer 16

Function words

Question 17

broad term, includes phonemic awareness; identify and manipulate larger parts of spoken language; alliteration, rhyme, words, and syllables

Answer 17

Phonological Awareness

Question 18

narrower, subcategory of phonological aw. Identify and manipulate individual sounds of spoken words. Understanding that speech is composed of individual sounds and noticing and manipulating the sounds in oral language. Emphasis is on the sound of the spoken word. Understanding that words are made of smaller units called phonemes

Answer 18

Phonemic Awareness

Question 19

focus on the letter-sound relationships in written words

Answer 19

Phonics and Spelling

Question 20

the relationship between phonemes and graphemes. It involves blending sounds made from letters to recognize words. It teaches students to decode unfamiliar words. The emphasis is on the spelling patterns of words. Understanding phonic rules means students are able to sound words out.

Answer 20

Phonics

Question 21

two consonants that go together to make one sound

Answer 21

Consonant Digraphs

Question 22

two vowels that go together to make one sound

Answer 22

Vowel Digraphs

Question 23

when a word or phrase from one language is used in another language. Ex: silk was originally a Chinese word

Answer 23

Borrowing

Question 24

British and American words can be spelled differently

Answer 24

British spelling

Question 25

refers to switching back and forth between two different languages in one conversation

Answer 25

Code-switching

Question 26

context helps comprehension because meaning is supported by the physical or social nature of the conversation

Answer 26

Context-Embedded

Question 27

a language that originates form a simplified language (pidgin) or a combination of other languages

Answer 27

Creole

Question 28

a form of speech belonging to a particular region. Ex: Cockney is a _______ of English

Answer 28

Dialect

Question 29

the art of debate based on reason. “Knowledge,” is referred to as the highest stage of our mind and is referred to as dialectic in the central book of the Republic

Answer 29

Dialectical Knowledge

Question 30

the representation of the sounds of English by written or printed symbols

Answer 30

English Orthography

Question 31

the history of how a word and its meaning formed

Answer 31

Etymology

Question 32

a linguistics term to alleviate references to gender specifics. Ex: Flight Attendant and Mail Carrier

Answer 32

Gender Neutral

Question 33

any language can develop a grammatical nuance, not always noticeable to listeners

Answer 33

Grammatical Change

Question 34

also called word changes; occur more rapidly than grammatical changes

Answer 34

Lexical changes

Question 35

a phenomenon that occurred mostly in the 15th-17th centuries. It involved all the long vowels in English- the lower vowels were pronounced higher, and the higher vowels changed into diphthongs.

Answer 35

Great vowel shift

Question 36

happens when someone thoughtfully tries to avoid making a mistake in language usage

Answer 36

Hypercorrection

Question 37

words or expressions used specifically by a select group, trade, or profession. It’s a shorthand between members of a select group of people. Ex: AMA= against medical advice

Answer 37

Jargon

Question 38

factors that impact language acquisition include: self-confidence, nervousness, anxiety, and boredom. Positive environments facilitate the successful learning of a second language

Answer 38

Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis

Question 39

we acquire language only when we understand what is said, not how it is said

Answer 39

Krashen's comprehensible Input Hypothesis

Question 40

the study of language and its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics

Answer 40

Linguistics

Question 41

the smallest semantically meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided. It is not a word and cannot stand alone. Every word is made up of one or more of these.

Answer 41

Morpheme

Question 42

the patterns of word formation in a particular language, including inflection, derivation, and composition

Answer 42

Morphology

Question 43

proposes that when humans are born, they contain the basic structures to learn any language. The human brain is like a “little black box,” ready to be molded by experiences with the outside world through the senses.

Answer 43

Noam Chomsky Universal Grammar

Question 44

a type of semantic change that takes place when a word’s meaning diminishes to refer to only part of the original meaning. Ex: centuries ago, “girl,” used to mean a child of either sex. Over time the meaning has turned into “a female child”

Answer 44

Narrowing

Question 45

the branch of linguistics involving three major communication skills: 1) Using language for different purposes 2) Changing language according to the needs of the listener or situation 3) Following rules in conversation such as taking turns in speaking

Answer 45

Pragmatics

Question 46

the study of the meaning of words by linguists. Ex: “love” can have many different meanings

Answer 46

Semantics

Question 47

informal words, phrases, and uses that are often restricted to certain contexts, professions, or class. Ex: hit the road

Answer 47

Slang

Question 48

accepted throughout English-speaking countries. Spoken with any accent with few variations in grammar.

Answer 48

Standard English Dialect

Question 49

refers to word order to convey a certain meaning. Ex: “to your farm we are going.” Would be an example of awkward usage. It’s understandable, but it sounds odd.

Answer 49

Syntax

Question 50

non-native lingua francas, arise quickly for functional communication (like trade or labor), simplified grammar of native language, begin as restricted (used only for certain functions), others become extended (used for all areas of life), they can be passed down through generations

Answer 50

Pidgins

Question 51

have native speakers, usually starts as a pidgin, becomes children’s native language, some are based on English such as Jamaican, some based on French such as Haitian, and some based on Spanish

Answer 51

Creole

Question 52

the study of word origins and derivations and how words change over time

Answer 52

Etymology

Question 53

two or more words having the same spelling or pronunciation, but different meanings and origins

Answer 53

Homonyms

Question 54

two words that mean something similar

Answer 54

Synonyms

Question 55

words whose sound is the same, but the spelling and meaning are different from one another. Ex: blew and blue

Answer 55

Heterographs

Question 56

words with multiple pronunciations that are spelled the same. Ex: record and record

Answer 56

Heterophones

Question 57

two words that are spelled the same, but not necessarily pronounced the same and having different meanings and origins. Ex: bass and bass

Answer 57

Homographs

Question 58

two words that have the same pronunciations but different meanings, origins, or spelling. Ex: new and knew

Answer 58

Homophones

Question 59

pre-reading “pseudo reading”, 6 months-6 years (preschool), child “pretends” to read, retells story when looking at pages of a book previous read to let them, names letters of the alphabet, recognizes some signs; prints own name; plays with books, pencils, and paper.

Answer 59

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage Zero

Question 60

initial reading an decoding. 6-7 years old 1st grade and beginning 2nd grade; child learns relation between letters and sounds and between printed and spoken words; child is able to read simple text containing high frequency words and phonically regular words; uses skill and insight to “sound out” new one syllable words

Answer 60

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage One

Question 61

Confirmation and fluency, 7-8 years old 2nd and 3rd grade, child reads simple, familiar stories and selections with increasing fluency. This is done by consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning context in the reading of familiar stories and selections.

Answer 61

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage Two

Question 62

Reading for learning the new, 9-13 years old 4th-8th grade Phase A (intermediate 4th-6th) Phase B (7th-9th), reading is used to learn new ideas, to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, generally from one viewpoint

Answer 62

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage Three

Question 63

multiple viewpoints, 15-17 years old, 10th-12th grade, reading widely from a broad range of complex materials, both expository and narrative with a variety of viewpoints

Answer 63

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage Four

Question 64

Construction and reconstruction 18+ years old, college and beyond, reading is used for one’s own needs and purposes (professional and personal); reading serves to integrate one’s knowledge with that of others, to synthesize it and to create new knowledge. It is rapid and efficient.

Answer 64

Chall's Stages of Reading Development: Stage 5

Question 65

fluent readers read at an appropriate rate of this for their age or grade level (usually measured in words per minute or wpm). They visually scan 3+ words ahead when reading aloud and maintain smooth visual tracking line to line.

Answer 65

Speed

Question 66

fluent readers have highly automatic word recognition and the skills to sound out unfamiliar words; dysfluent readers make frequent mistakes, have poor word recognition, skip words, substitute similar-appearing words, and struggle with unfamiliar words

Answer 66

Accuracy

Question 67

fluent readers use this (pitch, stress, and timing) to convey meaning when they read aloud; dysfluent readers typically use less expression, read word by word instead of in phrases or chunks, and fail to use intonation or pauses to “mark” punctuation (e.g. periods, commas, and question marks)

Answer 67

Prosody

Question 68

in 1st and 2nd grade, the focus is on phonics, learning to sound out words, and increasing sight word recognition. By grades 2-3 these skills have solidified and reading becomes more effortless and fluent.

Answer 68

Reading fluency begins

Question 69

by grades 3-4, the focus shifts from learning to read to “reading to learn,” and the students build vocabulary and knowledge through reading. If reading is less effortful, there are more mental resources available for comprehension, analysis, and critical thinking.

Answer 69

Reading fluency importance

Question 70

children with poor fluency often do not recognize and acquire linguistic patterns with the same ease as others. This is particularly true for children with language-based learning disabilities, such as dyslexia

Answer 70

Reading fluency struggles

Question 71

children can improve their fluency with explicit, systematic instruction. Treatment should be individually designed to address specific underlying weaknesses, which may include: phonological awareness, phonological memory, word attack skills, and linguistic retrieval.

Answer 71

Reading fluency treatment

Question 72

1. Literacy assessment is a social process, not a technical activity. Accordingly, all student texts are assessed by knowledgeable humans 2. Literacy assessments always assume a classroom learning context; such assessments help stakeholders focus on strengths, areas of concern, goals for improvement, and actions to be taken. The assessment of literacy development and/or achievement therefore does not rely solely on standardized tests, which are especially disruptive to instruction

Answer 72

Assessing Literacy

Question 73

1. Literacy assessment is meaningful to the learner 2. It includes more than cognitive activities; it also includes a range of practices and perceptions, including beliefs about literacy, dispositions toward literacy, and self-efficacy regarding literacy 3. The assessments are valid only to the extent that they help students learn

Answer 73

Assessing Literacy

Question 74

1. They are purposeful; therefore, assessment designed for one purpose- for example, program assessment- are not used for another- for example, individual assessment 2. Literacy assessment practices embrace several kinds of diversity including diversity in languages, in learning styles, and in rates and routes of learning 3. They vary and include multiple measures of different domains, including processes, texts, and reflection. Accordingly, no single measure informs literacy instruction.

Answer 74

Assessing Literacy

Question 75

1. Select a sample of 100 words and count the number of sentences 2. Divide the number of sentences into the number of words to find the average sentence length 3. Count the number of “big words” (3 syllables or more) and divide 100 by that number to find the percentage of big words 4. Add the average sentence length and percentage of big words together and multiply the sum by 0.4 to find the result

Answer 75

Calculating Reading Level: Gunning Fox Index

Question 76

1. Select a sample of 100 words and count the number of sentences 2. Divide the number of words (100) by the number of sentences and multiply the result by 1.015. save the result and call it x 3. Count total number of syllables in the sample, divide by the total number of words (100) and multiply by 84.6. call this number y 4. Add x to y and subtract the sum from 206.835. result is the reading ease score

Answer 76

Calculating Reading Level: The Flesch Formula

Question 77

1. Find a 100-word sample and count the number of sentences. Divide into the number of words to find the average sentence length. Call this number x 2. count the number of syllables and call that number y 3. Multiply x by 0.0778 and multiply y by 0.0455, then add the two results and call it z 4. Find grade level of the sample by subtracting 2.2029 from z 5. Find the reading age by adding 2.7971 to z

Answer 77

Calculate Reading Level: Power Sumner Kearl Formula

Question 78

underlying set of characteristics from all languages over the world

Answer 78

Universal Grammar

Question 79

can make something negative, make something plural, male/female, definite/indefinite, past/present

Answer 79

All languages