Language

Question 1

What is language?

Answer 1

• A system for representing, communicating information about the world using symbols and rules.
• Natural language vs Formal languages
• Human language vs animal language

Question 2

Formal languages

Answer 2

Finite systems of signs and rules for combination

• Computer languages
• Limited number of things that can be done compared to natural language

Question 3

Human language vs animal languages

Answer 3

• Bees, primates, cetaceans
• Animals need to be able to communicate with one another
• Closed/finite vs generative
• Human language is capable of representing abstract concepts

Question 4

Evolution of language groups

Answer 4

• Over 6000 languages
• Evolved from ancestral languages
• Evolved from latin
• Still see great similarities between languages
• Ancestral language known as proto-languages

Question 5

Functional component of languages

Answer 5

• Articulation
• Phonology
• Meaning/sematics
• Syntax
• Comprehension

Question 6

Articulation component

Answer 6

• Movement of tongue, lips and jaw to modify a sound wave
• Words are articulated due to precise movements of tongue, lips, jaw and pharynx, epiglottis to shape the column of sound formed by vocal cords.
• Can produce many words because of the way in which this happens

Question 7

How are sounds classified?

Answer 7

Based on place it is made.

Manner of articulation

Question 8

Labial sounds

Answer 8

Touching the lips together

Question 9

Alveolar/dental sounds

Answer 9

When the tongue presses against the top ridge, behind top teeth

Question 10

Palatal sounds

Answer 10

Made by the tongue manipulating against the pharynx

Question 11

Voiced vs unvoiced

Answer 11

The difference between p and b for example

Question 12

What is fricatives?

Answer 12

Fricatives is the hissing/continous sound

Question 13

Phonology

Answer 13

The sound combination from which the syllables and words of a language are built up.

Question 14

What structures vary across languages?

Answer 14

Legal phonological structures varies across languages

Question 15

Phonemes

Answer 15

Component of Syllables

Question 16

What is the international phonetic alphabet?

Answer 16

Easier for people from different countries to have their own rules. Used as a common notation

Question 17

What is semantics?

Answer 17

• Representation in long term memory of concepts and the relations between them
• What they signify
• Actions, objects and properties which are verbs, nouns and adjectives
• Independent of grammer
• Mapping through concepts and symbols is generally arbitrary

Question 18

What is the exception for semantics?

Answer 18

Onomatopoeia

Question 19

What is syntax?

Answer 19

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
Relies on grammatical markers and word order.

Question 20

Comprehension

Answer 20

Ability to represent the meaning of words or sentences spoken or written by another person
Entails knowledge of all of articulation, phonology, meaning and syntax
Also needs context, pitch, stress and prosody

Question 21

What is prosody?

Answer 21

Patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry

Question 22

Cerebral organisation of language

Answer 22

Dependent on left hemisphere network of cortical regions and white matter connections - known as the language network

Question 23

Left inferior frontal gyrus

Answer 23

Broca’s area - production of sentences

Question 24

Auditory cortex

Answer 24

Critical for understanding speech

Question 25

Anterior regions of temporal lobe

Answer 25

Important in representing meaning

Question 26

Wernicke’s Area

Answer 26

decoding incoming speech signal

Question 27

Arcutae Fasciculus

Answer 27

Connects anterior and posterior parts of language network together

Question 28

Articulation and phonology

Answer 28

• Depend on inferior and opercula parts of motor homunculus
• Control movements of tongue, mouth, larynx and epiglottis
• Corresponds to anterior portions of Broca’s area

Question 29

Which region of the brain is responsible for meaning?

Answer 29

• Highly dependent on left and right temporal poles
• Dense interconnections of temporal poles and areas of association cortex where individual features of the world as we experience it are first registered and processed e.g connections with taste areas, sound features
• Formed as modality independent representations

Question 30

Which region of the brain is responsible for syntax?

Answer 30

• Dependent of frontal areas
• Regions more posterior to Brodman’s area 44 and 45 complex
• Possibly extending into insula
• Left inferior frontal gyrus

Question 31

Which region of the brain is responsible for comprehension?

Answer 31

• Primary auditory cortex: without being able to represent an auditory signal, you wouldn’t understand speech.
• Temporal poles: to comprehend speech, need to understand the significance of the signals you are comprehending
• Left inferior frontal gyrus: understanding syntactic elements
• Arcuate fasciculus
• Left posterior superior
• Temporal gyrus

Question 32

Language change after a stroke

Answer 32

• Broca’s Aphasia
• Wernicke’s Aphasia
• Conduction Aphasia
• Adynamic Aphasia

Question 33

What is Broca’s aphasia?

Answer 33

• Difficulty with articulation and phonolgy
• Speech:
  
  • > Fragmented
  • > Distorted
  • > Halting
  • > Aggramatic
  • > Distorted grammatical structure
• Comprehension:
  
  • > Preserved for words
  • > Reduced for sentences
• Follows damage to:
  
  • > Broca’s Area
• Typical pathologies:
  
  • > Middle cerebral artery infarction
  • > Haemorrhagic stroke

Question 34

What is Wernicke’s aphasia?

Answer 34

• Receptive/sensory aphasia
• Speech unnaturally fluent: usually contains meaningless phonological strings
• Damage: to posterior regions of language networks
• Typical pathologies: Penetrating brain injury, cerebral haemorrhage