Lab Practical Flashcards
What are the 5 Hardy-Weinberg Assumptions?
- Large Population
- Random Mating
- No Net Mutation
- Isolated Population (closed)
- No Natural Selection
What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equation? What equation can be used to calculate allele frequencies?
1 = p^2 + 2pq + q^2
p + q = 1
In the Hardy-Weinberg Equation, what does p^2 stand for?
Expected frequency of the dominant homozygous genotype, AA
In the Hardy-Weinberg Equation, what does q^2 stand for?
Expected frequency of the recessive homozygous genotype, aa
In the Hardy-Weinberg Equation, what does 2pq stand for?
Expected frequency of the heterozygous genotype, Aa
In the Hardy-Weinberg Equation, what does p stand for?
The allelic frequency of the dominant allele
In the Hardy-Weinberg Equation, what does q stand for>
The allelic frequency of the recessive allele
What is Founder Effect?
A small, non-representative sample of a population begins a new population with a new genotype frequency
What is a population bottleneck?
A population is reduced, and a small gene pool rebuilds the population with little genetic variation
What is the value of the Hardy-Weinberg theorem?
It is a null model that can be used to see if evolution is occuring
A population of cheetahs was greatly reduced to only 20. Te population rebounded, but the genetic diversity didn’t. This is an example of _________.
Population Botltleneck
A random change in allele frequencies in a population is ____ _______
Genetic Drift
A small group of individuals from a population founded a new habitat and their allele frequencies did not mirror that of the parent generation. This is an example of _________________.
Founder Effect
What is a change in allele frequencies between generations within a population or small group, especially over a short period of time?
Microevolution
What equation can be used to calculate expected dominant phenotype frequencies?
2pq + p^2 / (p^2 + 2pq + q^2)
What equation can be used to calculate expected recessive phenotype frequencies?
2pq + q^2 / (p^2 + 2pq + q^2)
True or false: Genetic drift can occur even when all H-W conditions are met
True
True or false: Genetic drift is more likely in a small population
True
What are the four agents of evolution?
- Natural Selection
- Genetic Drift
- Gene flow
- Mutation
Under this species concept, a group of organisms are classified in the same species if they appear morphologically identical.
Morphological Species Concept
Under the ______ ______ ______, organisms are classified as the same as the same species if they have identical DNA sequences.
Molecular Species Concept
What is a theory that defines a species as two organisms that are able to successfully mate and reproduce?
Biological Species Concept
Why is low genetic diversity an issue in species conservation?
- low genetic diversity causes a population to not be able to adapt to a new environment
- low genetic diversity can lead to the “march to homozygosity”
What are the three similarities between organisms that can be used to define a species?
- morphology
- characters
- genetic makeup
How are species defined in the ecological species concept?
Species are defined by ecological niche
what are species?
Groups that are similar in morphology, characters, or genetic makeup
What is the unmodified character state?
Ancestral
What is the modified character state?
Derived
_________ is an observable trait of an organism
Character
What is a character state of the character forelimbs?
no forelimbs, two forelimbs, or four forelimbs
What is a homologous character?
characters found in two or more species and are derived from the same structure in a common ancestor
What is an apomorophy?
A new or descendant character state
What is a synapomorphy?
A shared derived character
What is a plesiomorphy?
Ancestral character state
A shared ancestral character state is __________
Symplesiomorphy
What is a monophyletic group?
All members of the group and all descendants share the same, most recent ancestor
_________ groups result when an ancestral group, but not all of its descendants, are included
Paraphyletic
What is the group called when the organisms in the group do not share the most recent common ancestor?
Polyphyletic group
What is a clade?
A group of taxa consisting of an ancestor and all descendants
What occurs at a node?
A speciation event
What is a homoplasious character?
A character that does not agree with the hypothesized tree and is represented with an asterisk
A _________ shows evolutionary relationships among organisms
phylogeny
_________ means that the simplest explanation for phylogenetic relationships is the best explanation
parsimony
What is the consistency index equation?
sum (n-1)/ number of state changes
n = number of character differences for a specific trait
What is the CI scale? Which end do you want to be closer to? What does it mean if CI = 1
- Scale: 0-1
- Close to 1
- no homoplasy
What is an analogous character?
same function, different structure
What are the five characteristics of monocots?
- one cotyledon
- parallel veins
- Fibrous root system
- Flowers in multiples of threes
- Scattered vascular bundles
What are the five characteristics of eudicots?
- More than one cotyledon
- net-like veins
- tap roots
- Flowers in fours or fives
- Vascular bundles in a ring
What is the function of the xylem?
tissues responsible for transporting water
What is the function of the phloem?
tissues responsible for the transport of nutrients
What do the ripened ovaries plus the seeds of a plant make up?
The Fruit
What are angiosperms?
Flowering Plants
The angiosperm plant body is made up of what two parts?
The root system and shoot
What is the outer layer of a tree called?
Cork
What compromises the bark?
Cortex and phloem
From outside to inside, what are the layers of the tree?
cortex, phloem, and xylem
What are characteristics of the spring wood?
light, large-celled wood
What are characteristics of summer wood?
denser, darker, small celled wood
Flowers are a type of ________ ______?
Modified Leaves
What are the sterile parts of the flowers?
Sepals and Petals
What are the male parts of the plant?
The stamens, composed of the filament and anther
What part of the plant produces pollen?
anther
What are the female parts of the plant?
Pistil, composed of the ovary, style, and stigma
What part of the plant is receptive to pollen?
Stigma
What kind of fertilization occurs in angiosperms?
Double fertilization
What does the ovary contain?
Ovules, which becomes the seed
What is a rhizome?
A stem modification where the stem is partly in the round, horizontal, and has roots on the bottom(Iris)
What is a stolon?
A stem modification where the stem grows horizontally over the ground (strawberries)
What is a tuber?
A stem modification where the stem is underground and develops from the tip of a rhizome (white or Irish potato)
What is a corm?
A stem modification. A thick, underground stem. Food is stored in the stem (gladioulus)
What is a rosette?
A stem modification. A short, upright shoot with whorled internodes that appear whorled in arrangement at the ground level (dandelion)
What is a stem succulence?
A stem modification. A thick, fleshy stem specialized for water storage. (cactus)
What is a leaf tendril?
A leaf modification. A coiled structure that attaches a plant for support. (pea)
What is a Bract?
A leaf modification. The leaf may be reduced or different from the others on a stem and found just below the flower. (the colored bracts of a poinsetta)
What are insectivorous leaves?
A leaf modification. Leaves are specialized for trapping and digesting insects (Venus fly trap)
What is a spine?
A Leaf Modification. A hard, sharp-pointed structure (cactus)
Are true wood plants eudicots or monocots?
Eudicots
What part of the brain is involved in coordination of movement?
Cerebellum
the ________ part of the brain is responsible for consciousness and reasoning
Cerebrum
What is white matter in the brain that connects the left and right hemispheres?
Corpus Callosum
What part of the brain controls basic autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate?
Medulla Oblongata
What does the pituitary gland do?
Secretes hormones that regulate growth, development, and the thyroids
What does the pons do?
Relays sensory information to the cerebrum and cerebellum
What part of the brain relays sensory information signals from the senses to the cerebrum and is the main “switchboard” relay center of the brain?
Thalamus
What are the three domains of living organisms?
Bacteria, archaea, and eukarya
What are the two types of bacteria?
- Autotrophic (make own food; cyanobacteria)
- Heterotrophic (obtain energy from preformed organic molecules
What four groups fall under eukaryotes?
Plants, animals, protists, fungi
What are protists, and how do they get their energy?
- Anything that is not a plant, animal, or fungi
- Can be heterotrophic, autotrophic, or mixotrophic
How do fungi reproduce and how do they get their food?
They reproduce through Budding and obtain their food through absorption
Cell wall, multicellular, primarily photoautotrophic, and chloroplasts describe what?
Plant
An organism that is multicellular, has no cell wall, and contains membrane bound organelles is a what?
Animal
What phyla is a sponge?
Porifera
What phyla are jellyfish and corals?
Cnidaria
What is an example of an organism in the platyhelminthes phylum?
Flat worm
What is an example of an organism in the Mollusca Phylum?
Snails, octopus
What phylum are segmented worms in?
Annelida
What phylum are round worms in?
Nematoda
What are examples of organisms in the phylum arthropoda?
insects, crabs
What are examples of organisms in the phylum Echinodermata?
Starfish and sand dollars
What phylum do humans and other vertabrates fall under?
Chordata
What does the theory of endosymbiosis state?
the ancestors of mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria
The majority of prokaryotes are surrounded by a ______.
Cell wall
What organisms are able to live in extreme environments?
Archaea
How do prokaryotes obtain their energy?
prokaryotes can be autotrophic, lithotrophic, or hetertrophic
What is a type of autotrophic bacteria?
Cyanobacteria
What are two types of heterotrophic bacteria and what are their shapes?
Cocci (sperical) and Bacilli (rod)
What are two types of heterotrophic protists?
Amoebae and Paramecia
Spirogyra and Volvox look like what? And what are they?
- Autotrophic protists
- Spriogyra (spiral)
- Volvox (spheres grouped into colonies)
Plants, animals, and fungi are _______ organisms, where as protists are ________ and can form _________.
multicellular, unicellular, colonies
What is the selective pressure against the evolution of multicellular organisms?
There is an upper limit to cell size in unicellular organisms. As a cell increases in size, the volume increases faster than the surface area. Since a cell takes up nutrients through the surface, large cells would lack enough surface area to provide nutrients to the entire cell.
Mushrooms, molds, and yeasts are types of what?
fungi
Aspergillus is a type of what? What does it look like?
fungi, it has spores
What is a type of fungi that reproduce through budding?
Yeast
What do plant cells have that animals do not?
cell wall, large central vacuole, chloroplasts
What is the first embryo in a developing embryo?
Blastopore
The blastopore in a protostome will develope into a ______. The blastopore in a deuterostome will develope into a ________.
Mouth, anus
Protostomes and deuterstomes are triploblastic, meanin what?
The develope into three layers, the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
_______ is a fluid-filled cavity in the mesoderm.
coelom
Only ________ animals have a coelem.
Triploblastic
In triploblastic animals, what are the three types of body plans and what does each mean?
- acoelomate- coelom is completely filled with mesoderm, leaving no cavity
- pseudocoelomate- coelom is lined with mesoderm on one side and endoderm on the other
- coelomate- coelom is completely lined with mesoderm tissue
What are the three type of symmetry and what do they mean?
- Asymmetry- no symmetry
- Radial Symmetry- mirror image is formed with any division down the central axis
- bilateral symmetry- single plane of symmetry
What four things are characteristic to all chordates?
- Notochord
- Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Chord
- Pharyngeal Gill Slits
- Muscular post-anal tail
What phylum has no symmetry? Which one has radial symmetry? What type of symmetry do the rest have?
- porifera
- Cnidaria
- Bilateral
Which phyla are deuterstomes?
Echinodermata and chordata
What is the only diplo-blastic phylum?
Cnidaria
Which phyla have an exoskeleton, and which have an endoskeleton?
- Exo: mollusca, nematoda, arthropoda
- Endo: echinodermata, chordata
Which two phyla do not have true tissues?
platyhelminthes, porifera
What bones comprise the skull?
The frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and facial bones
What is the hole at the base of the skull that serves as the spinal chord entrance called?
Foramen magnum
What is the order of vertrabrae?
Cervical (atlas, axis), thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
Which vertabrae are attached to the ribs?
thoracic
Which vertabrae are attached to the pelvic bone?
sacral
Which vertabrae makes up the tail?
Caudal
Which vertabrate make up the neck?
Cervical, including the atlas and axis
What is movement toward or away from a stimulu?
Taxis
What is a change in activity rate in response ot a stimulus?
Kinesis
If organisms show no preference and their choice is random, this is called a ______ _______.
Null hypothesis
In a chi-square analysis, what does the p value represent, and what value is used for this?
- the probability that the results are due to random chance
- p = .05
What is the critical value in a chi-square analysis? If the chi-square value is over the critical value, what does this mean?
critical value= 3.84
-If the chi-square value is over this, the null hypothesis is rejected. If it is less, you have failed to reject your null hypothesis
What is the chi-square equation?
x^2 = (observed - Expected)^2 / Expected
ADD TOTALS
What equation can be used to relate the number of species to island area? What do the variables stand for? What equation can be used to graph the information?
S = CA^z S= number of species C = The value of S at A=1 A = Area of the island logS= logC + zlogA z = slope
Islands are in equilibrium with what two forces?
immigration of new species and extinction of existing species
True or false: According to area effect, a larger island should have more species at equilibrium than a smaller island the same distance from the mainland
True
True or false: An island closer to the mainland will have less species at equilibrium than one farther from the mainland?
False
Near or toward the head end
Anterior
near or toward the tail end
Caudal
Far from a point of reference
Distal
Near or toward the back
Dorsal
Near or toward the sides, left, or right
Lateral
Near or toward the middle
Median
Near or toward the hind end
Posterior
Close to the point of reference
Proximal
Near or toward the belly
Ventral
What kinds of skeletons does a crab, lamprey, polychaete, and squid have?
crab - exoskeleton
lamprey - endoskeleton
polychaete - none
squid- endoskeleton
How do the crab, lamprey, polychaete, and squid accomplish gas exchange?
crab, squid, and lamprey - gills
polychaete- parapodia
Of the crab, lampre, polychaete, and squid, which has an open circulatory system?
crab
How do the crab, lamprey, polychaete,and squid accomplish osmoregulation?
crab- antennal glands
lamprey- kidneys
polychaete and squid- nephridia
Of the crab, lamprey, polychaete, and squid, which is the only deuterostome?
lamprey
Of the crab, lamprey, polychaete, and squid, which is the only one with a brain? What kind of nervous system do the others have?
- Lamprey has a brain
- Others have central ganglion
Where are razor blades, broken glass, and sharp items disposed?
The sharps container
What is placed in the biohazard bin?
live microorganisms, discarded tissue, blood waste
