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Bio 1114 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Homology is established though similarities in developmental pathways, specifically _________.

A

embryos

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2
Q

What did German biologist Ernst Haeckel tie similarities in developmental pathways to?

A

Evolutionary Change

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3
Q

What does “Ontegeny Recapitulates Phylogeny” Mean?

A

development of an organism (ontogeny) expresses all the intermediate forms of its ancestors throughout evolution (phylogeny)

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4
Q

What are genes that control where, when, and how other genes are expressed?

A

Master Genes

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5
Q

Homeotic Genes are type of _________. What do they regulate?

A
  • Master Genes

- Regulate expression of body parts by regulating where, when, and how genes downstream will be expressed.

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6
Q

HOX genes are a type of __________. What do they do?

A
  • Master Genes

- Set up Anterior-Posterior and Dorsal-Ventral Axes

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7
Q

HOX genes are arranged in what way on chromosomes?

A

Co-linear

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8
Q

What is evidence for the importance of HOX genes?

A

They have been conserved over time

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9
Q

What genes spur eye development?

A

PAX genes

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10
Q

While the same homeotic genes can occur in several species, variants in the regulatory genes can still arise through ________ ________.

A

Random Mutation

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11
Q

What acts to shape the effects of mutations in homeotic genes in terms o fitness and frequency within the population?

A

Selection

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12
Q

What is the most important source of new genes?

A

Gene duplication

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13
Q

What is the term that means more copies of all genes?

A

Polyploidy

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14
Q

What causes unequal crossing over so that one chromosome gets extra copies of a gene?

A

Misalignment in meiosis

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15
Q

What are three consequences of gene duplication?

A
  1. New copy may not have the same functional constraints as the ancestor copy
  2. Mutations may accumulate in the new copy with fewer consequences
  3. Mutations may allow the new copy to perform new functions
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16
Q

What are gene families and what are two examples?

A
  • Clusters of genes similar in structure and sequence

- HOX genes, Globin Genes

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17
Q

The Globin Gene family includes _________, which are non-functional as globin genes and are usually not transcribed.

A

pseudogenes

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18
Q

Selection acts ________ on each gene in a gene family.

A

Independently

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19
Q

How long ago did earth form?

A

3.6 billion years ago

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20
Q

What is the period called from the origin of the solar system to about 3850 ma and what are two characteristics?

A
  • The Hadean
  • No fossil record
  • Almost no geological record
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21
Q

What are four key events from the Hadean period?

A
  • Differentiation of earth into crust, mantle and core
  • origin of the atmosphere
  • condensation of water vapor
  • Origin of continental crust
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22
Q

What are three attributes of life?

A
  1. Autonomous replication
  2. Critical level of complexity
  3. Ability to evolve via natural selection
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23
Q

What are requirements for life?

A
  1. An energy source
  2. Basic chemicals
  3. An external environment that sustains life
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24
Q

In what era and eon was the origin of life?

A

Eon: Archean
Era: Eoarchaen

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25
Q

What did early life most likely consist of?

A

prokaryotic bacteria-like organisms

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26
Q

Archaea are _______.

A

Extremophiles

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27
Q

During what eon was the origin of eukaryotes?

A

Proterozoic

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28
Q

What resulted after the origin of eukaryotes?

A

Rapid diversifiction of soft-bodied multicellular animals and green algae

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29
Q

What theory states that eukaryotic cells evolved when aerobic bacteria either infected or were engulfed by a larger host cell and later established a symbiotic relationship?

A

Serial Endosymbiosis Theory

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30
Q

Mitochondria are thought to be derived from _____ ______, while chloroplasts are thought to be derived from ________. This is part of what theory?

A
  • Purple bacteria
  • Cyanobacteria
  • Endosymbiotic theory
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31
Q

What are two pieces of evidence for chloroplasts and mitochondria as endosymbiotic organelles?

A
  1. Circular genomes in chloroplasts, mitochondria, and bacteria
  2. Mitochondria have cell membranes similar to prokaryotes
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32
Q

In the progression toward multicellularity, single-celled eukaryotes evolved into what?

A

Colonial eukaryotes

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33
Q

What is an example of groupings of individual cells? What enables cells to stick together?

A
  • sponges

- collagen

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34
Q

In the progression toward multicellularity, differentiated multicellular eukaryotes evolved from what?

A

-Colonial eukaryotes

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35
Q

What are three challenges of multicellularity?

A
  1. The need for support, rigity, increase
  2. Reproduction becomes more difficult
  3. Suface-to-volume ratio decreases as size increases
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36
Q

What is the opportunity of multicellularity?

A

-Cellular and tissue specialization and greater complexity becomes possible

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37
Q

What is the Cambrian Explosion?

A

-Sudden appearance of diverse forms in the fossil record

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38
Q

Fossils of many phyla first appeared in the _______ _______.

A

Cambrian Explosion

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39
Q

What happened by the end of the Cambrian Explosion?

A

All major phyla were present

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40
Q

What is the intrinsic explanation for the Cambrian Explosion? Give a possible explanantion

A
  • Something about animals changed

- Hox and Hox-like genes were duplicated in organisms with bilateral symmetry, causing increased complexity

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41
Q

What is the extrinsic explanation for the Cambrian Explosion? Give three possible explanations.

A

Something about the environment changed

  1. Ancient atmosphere had insufficient Oxygen to allow the evolution of large animals with active lifestyles
  2. A mass extinction allowed new forms
  3. Ecosystem reached a tipping point in complexity resulting in widespread co-evolution
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42
Q

What are two explanations for where life came from?

A
  • Abiogenesis (life originated from abiotic precursors that existed on earth)
  • Panspermia (life originated from abiotic or biotic precursors that arrived from extraterrestrial sources)
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43
Q

The physicist John Desmond Bernal suggested three clearly defined stages that could be recognized in explaining life’s origins. What are they?

A
  1. The origin of biological monomers
  2. The origin of biological polymers
  3. evolution from molecules to cell
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44
Q

What did the Miller-Urey Experiment do?

A

Synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors

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45
Q

What is the RNA World hypothesis?

A

Early life was based on RNA. This was short-lived once oxygen became abundant and DNA-based life became more prevalent.

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46
Q

What are the three domains?

A
  1. Bacteria
  2. Archaea
  3. Eukarya
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47
Q

What are the four kingdoms in the Eukarya Domain?

A
  1. Protists
  2. Fungi
  3. Plants
  4. Animals
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48
Q

What is the heiarchy of domains and kingdoms?

A 
Domains = highest
Kingdom= one lower than domain
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49
Q

Bacteria and Archaea are types of what?

A

Prokaryotes

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50
Q

At least how old are prokaryotes?

A

3.6 billion years old

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51
Q

What fossils consist of layers of bacterial mats and can still be found today?

A
  • stromatolites

- These are a type of prokaryote

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52
Q

What originally produced an oxygen atmosphere?

A

Early photosynthetic prokaryotes

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53
Q

Which is there more of: prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes

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54
Q

What cause about half of all human disease?

A

prokaryotes

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55
Q

What are three properties of bacteria?

A
  1. All share a common ancestor
  2. Single-celled prokaryotes
  3. Asexual reproduction
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56
Q

What are the three basic shapes of bacteria? Give an example for each shape.

A
  1. Coccus (round)
  2. Bacillus (rod)
  3. Spirillum (spiral)
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57
Q

How are bacteria classified into their two major groups? What are the two groups based on?

A
  • Gram Stain

- Based on celll wall structure

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58
Q

How do humans encourage antibiotic resistance?

A

By not continuing to take antibiotics as prescribed until all antibiotics are used. This develops antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

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59
Q

How can bacteria be beneficial?

A

You have a normal amount of bacteria in your body that is good for you. Probiotic therapy is used to swamp your body with helpful bacteria to outnumber the harmful bacteria.

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60
Q

What is one of the most important bacterial discoveries?

A

Thermus Aquaticus, because it is used in polymerase chain reaction

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61
Q

How are archaea similar and different to bacteria?

A

Similar: appearance, prokaryotes, single-celled
Different: DNA, cell wall chemical composition, flagella

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62
Q

What organisms are known as extremophiles and why?

A
  • Archaea

- Found almost everywhere

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63
Q

What are four properties of eukarya?

A
  1. Nucleus
  2. Cytoskeleton
  3. Mitochondira
  4. Chimeric genome
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64
Q

What does it mean that eukarya have a chimeric genome?

A

They have some genes from bacteria, some from archaea, and some unique to eukarya

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65
Q

How to genomes grow over the course of evolution?

A

New genes arise through the duplication of existing genes, but diverge in function

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66
Q

What is the constraint on single cells? Why is this a constraint?

A
  • Cells must stay small

- They must maintain their surface area to volume ratio to take in and release water, nutrients, and wastes

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67
Q

What are cells that are connected by intercellular junctions and function as a unit called?

A

Tissues

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68
Q

What do junctions between tissue cells do?

A

Hold tissues together and allow for communication

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69
Q

Coloniality has evolved _________ in many prokaryote and protist lineages

A

Independently

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70
Q

Multicellularity has evolved __________ in several eukaryote groups

A

Independently

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71
Q

What one feature do all protists share?

A

They are eukaryotes

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72
Q

What is the most diverse group of organisms?

A

Protists

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73
Q

True or false: Protists can be single-celled and multicellular

A

True

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74
Q

True or false: Protists have a small range of body plans

A

False

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75
Q

What are the three traditional groupings of protists? Give an example of each.

A
  1. Animal-like (Protozoans)
  2. Plant-like (algae)
  3. Fungus-like (molds)
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76
Q

How do animal-like, plant-like, and fungus-like protists get their energy?

A
  • Animal and fungus-like = chemeotrophs

- plant-like = phototrophs

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77
Q

Most animal-like protists are _________. What do they do?

A
  • unicellular

- pass diseases

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78
Q

How are fungi different from plants?

A
  • lack chloroplasts
  • do not photosynthesize
  • some are unicellular (yeast)
  • heterotrophic
79
Q

Fungi are more closely related to animals than plants. What similarities do fungi and animals share?

A
  • cell walls contain chitin as in some animals, and not cellulose as in plants
  • carbohydrates are stored as glycogen as in animals, and not starch, as in plants
80
Q

How do fungi feed?

A
  • Heterotrphic
  • Absorption
  • Most are decomposers, some are parasitic, and some are symbiotic
81
Q

What is the structure of the fungi body like? Why?

A
  • Like a network of thin filaments
    1. provides a large surface area for absorbing nutrients
    2. penetrates the fungus’s food source
    3. Secretes enzymes that break down molecules
    4. Absorb resulting nutrients
82
Q

What are tiny filaments of fungi that form a network underground or “body” above?

A

-Hyphae

83
Q

What are mycelium?

A

The interwoven network of hyphae underground

84
Q

What is the release of spores?

A

Sporulation

85
Q

What are primitive fungi that produce swimming spores that have flagella? What are they known for?

A

Chytrids

-They infect frogs and are parasitic and kill the frogs

86
Q

Mycorrihizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. Why? What do mycorrihizal form from?

A
  1. Helps the plant better absorb nutrients
  2. Fungus gets carbohydrates from the plant
    - form from glomeromycota
87
Q

What are they fungi zygomycota known for?

A

The molds that grow on food

88
Q

Slime molds are _______ while other molds are_______.

A
  • protists

- fungi

89
Q

What is the fungus Ascomycota known for? Why are they important?

A

Yeast

  • Important economically for food such as bread and wine
  • Important Gastronomically for edible mushrooms
  • Important medically for penicillium, the source for penicillin
90
Q

A ______ is the result of a relationship between a fungus and photosynthesizer such as green algae or cyanobacteria.

A

lichen

91
Q

What is the domain and kingdom of plants?

A

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Plantae

92
Q

What are five properties of plants?

A
  1. Multicellular eukaryotes
  2. Well-Developed tissues
  3. Mostly terrestrial and sessile
  4. Exhibit embryo protection
  5. Photoautotrophic
93
Q

What were the earliest plants like?

A

Fossil Spores

94
Q

What features did plants evolve to adapt to life on land?

A
  • resist drying out
  • absorb nutrients
  • stand upright without outside support
  • reproduction not dependent on water
95
Q

What feature distinguishes plants from green algae?

A

Embryo protection- all plants nourish a multicellular embryo in the body of a female plant

96
Q

What is another name for non-vascular plants?

A

bryophytes

97
Q

What are two properties of bryophytes? give an example of one.

A
  1. simplest, primitive, earliest plants
  2. Lack roots and vascular tissue
    - mosses
98
Q

What are three qualities of earliest plants?

A
  1. have cuticle
  2. no roots or true leaves
  3. small
99
Q

What is the vascular tissue made of?

A

xylem and phloem

100
Q

True or false: Vascular plants have seeds.

A

False, they are seedless

101
Q

What group is the most diverse seedless vascular plant?

A

pterophytes (Fern)

102
Q

Seeldess Vascular plants were the first to do what?

A
  • evolve vascular tissue

- use spores for reproduction

103
Q

Are vascular plants larger or smaller than bryophytes?

A

Larger

104
Q

What is the term for an embryo and stored nutrients within a protective coat?

A

seed

105
Q

Vascular seed plants use seeds for dispersal rather than _______.

A

Spores

106
Q

What is an example of a vascular seed plant?

A

Conifers

107
Q

Vascular plants with naked seeds are called _________.

A

Gymnosperms (Gymn = naked)

108
Q

What are reproductive structures that attract pollinators and develop into fruit?

A

Flowers

109
Q

Flowers distinguish the ________ from the _______ .

A

angiosperms

gymnosperms

110
Q

What is a flower?

A

A modified shoot (stem and leaves) with up to four whorls of modified leaves encircling them

111
Q

What two whorls are sterile?

A

Sepals and petals

112
Q

What two whorls are reproductive?

A

Stamens and carpals

113
Q

In angiosperms, the ovule is buried in the ______ of a flower, so it is not naked.

A

tissue

114
Q

What are the outermost, green, leaf-like parts that protect the growing bud?

A

sepals

115
Q

What are flower parts just inside the sepals that are often colorful to attract pollinators?

A

Petals

116
Q

What makes up the stamen?

A

Filament and anther

117
Q

What makes up the carpal?

A

Stigma, style, and ovary

118
Q

What two things prevent self-fertilization in plants?

A
  1. The stamens and the carpals mature at different times

2. Many angiosperms have self-incompatibility

119
Q

Why are angiosperms more successful than gymnosperms?

A
  • angiosperms have short reproductive life cycles that allow them to evolve more rapidly, where as gymnosperms have slow life cycles
  • Angiosperms advertise
120
Q

How have plants and pollinators undergone coevolution?

A
  • Plants have become more effective at attracting specific pollinators
  • Pollinators have become more effective at exploiting specific plant resources
121
Q

Fruits develop from _______ _______.

A

Pollinated flowers

122
Q

After a flower has been pollinated, the embryo becomes a _______.

A

Seed

123
Q

What are three properties of animal-dispersed seeds and fruits?

A
  • Colorful and Conspicuous
  • Taste good
  • Usually good for animals
124
Q

___________ are the first and only plants to have flowers and produce fruit.

A

Angiosperms

125
Q

What is the most diverse plant group?

A

Angiosperms

126
Q

What domain and kingdom are animals in?

A

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: animaia

127
Q

What are three properties of animals?

A
  1. Muticellular
  2. Eat other organisms (heterotrophic)
  3. Move
128
Q

How many animal phyla are there?

A

35

129
Q

What are the categories to distinguish groups of plants?

A
  1. nonvascular plants vs. vascular seedless plants
  2. vascular seedless plants vs. gymnosperms
  3. gymnosperms vs. angiosperms
130
Q

What are the categories to distinguish groups of animals?

A
  1. True tissues vs. no true tissues
  2. Tissued animals: bilateral vs. radial symmetry
  3. Blastopore fate: Deuterostome vs. protostome
  4. Protostome development: lophotrochozoans vs. Ecdysozoa
131
Q

What is the term for no true tissues?

A

parazoa

132
Q

What is the term for multiple tissue layers? what is the term for two? what is the term for three?

A
  • Eumetazoa
  • Diplobast
  • Triploblast
133
Q

Sponges have no ________ and no _______.

A
  • tissues

- symmetry

134
Q

What do sponges used to move water in and out?

A

Choanocytes

135
Q

What is the term for when multiple planes divide the organism into mirror images?

A

Radial Symmetry

136
Q

What is bilateral symmetry?

A

One plane divides the organism into mirror images

137
Q

True or false: Eumetazoans are divided into two groups based on adult symmetry

A

False, they are divided based on larval symmetry

138
Q

What type of tissues and symmetry do cnidaria have?

A
  • diploblast

- radial symmetry

139
Q

What are cnidocytes?

A

Stinging cells in cnidaria

140
Q

Jellyfish and corals are examples of what?

A

Cnidarians

141
Q

What is the relationship between coral and algae? What is coral bleaching and what causes it?

A
  • symbiotic relationship: corals get their nutrition from algae that live with them
  • coral bleaching occurs due to rises in sea temperature and is when corals expel their algae
142
Q

What is the blastopore fate of deuterostomes and protostomes?

A

Deuterostome: anus
Protostome: Mouth

143
Q

What two groups are protostomes further divided into?

A
  • Lophotrocozoans

- Ecdysozoa

144
Q

What are properties of lophotrocozoans?

A
  • Hollow feeding appendage

- Use cilia for motility

145
Q

What are properties of ecdysozoa?

A

-Have exoskeleton that must be shed in order to grow

146
Q

What three phyla are lophotrocozoans?

A
  1. Annelids
  2. Platyhemithes
  3. Molluscs
147
Q

What kind of tissues do Mollusca have? What kind of symmetry do they have? What is their blastopore fate?

A
  • triploblastic
  • Bilateral
  • Protostomes
148
Q

What phylum do Gastropoda fall under? What is a characteristic property of them? Give an example.

A
  • Mollusca
  • stomach foot: foot sits ventral to the rest of the body
  • Snails
149
Q

What phylum do Bivalvia fall under? What is a characteristic property of them? Give and example.

A
  • Mollusca
  • Large shell covers entire body so muscular foot is hidden in the shell
  • clam
150
Q

What phylum do Cephaopoda fall under? what is a characteristic property of them? Give an example.

A
  • Mollusca
  • Muscular food sticks out of head portion
  • Squids
151
Q

Annelids have a ________ body.

A

Segmented

152
Q

What kind of tissues and symmetry do annelida have? What is their blastopore fate? Give an example.

A
  • Bilateral symmetry
  • Triploblastic
  • protostomes
  • earth worm
153
Q

What kind of tissues, symmetry, and blastopore fate do platyhelminthes have? Give an example?

A
  • Triploblastic
  • Bilateral
  • Protostomes
  • Tapeworms
154
Q

What is the term for shedding of the exoskeleton and replacing it with a larger one at regular intervals?

A

-Molting

155
Q

Which two phyla undergo molting?

A

Arthropoda and Nematoda

156
Q

What kind of symmetry, tissues, and blastopore fate do Nematodes have? Give an example.

A
  • Bilateral
  • Triploblastic
  • Protostome
  • Round Worm
157
Q

What kind of symmetry, tissues, and blastopore fate do Arthropoda have? Give an example.

A
  • Bilateral
  • Triploblastic
  • Protostomes
  • Insects
158
Q

Which is the most successful phylum in terms of overall species?

A

-Arthropoda

159
Q

Which group of arthropods has the most species/ is the most diverse?

A

Insects

160
Q

Insects undergo ______, in which they mature to their adult form

A

Metamorphosis

161
Q

Which phyla are deuterstomes?

A

Chordata and echinodermata

162
Q

Which phyla is described as bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, and deuterostomes? Give an example.

A
  • Echinodermata

- starfish

163
Q

What kind of symmetry, tissues, and blastopore fate do chordates have?

A
  • Bilateral
  • Triploblastic
  • Deuterstome
164
Q

Besides chordata, which is the only phylum with diploblastic tissues?

A

Cnidaria

165
Q

What four things are characteristic to all chordates?

A
  • Dorsal Hollow Nerve Chord
  • Pharyngeal gill Slits
  • Notochord
  • Post-anal tail
166
Q

What group of chordates are called “water bears” and can survive extreme conditions?

A

Tardigrada

167
Q

The majority of vertebrates are _____.

A

Fish

168
Q

What is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment?

A

Ecology

169
Q

What four things does Ecology look at?

A
  1. Individual
  2. Population
  3. Community
  4. Ecosystem, both biotic and abiotic factors
170
Q

Populations interact to form _______.

A

Communities

171
Q

What is predation?

A

When one organism feeds on another

172
Q

Predation forms a strong _______ _______ on prey, causing them to do what?

A
  • Selective pressure

- Develop camoflage, warning coloration, or other defenses

173
Q

Give an example of organisms that use mimicry as a defense.

A

Monarch butterflies has toxic substances and is colored to warn predators of this. The Viceroy butterfly has adapted to look like the monarch to make predators think it is also toxic.

174
Q

Give an example of mechanical defenses in organisms.

A

Spikes on a cactus, turtle’s shell

175
Q

How do animals use chemical defenses to fight predation?

A

They synthesize toxin or accumulate it from the food they eat

176
Q

What is symbiosis and what are the three forms of it?

A
  • Close interactions between species
    1. parasitism
    2. mutualism
    3. commensalism
177
Q

What is the term that is used when interactions between species are strong?

A

Coevolution

178
Q

What is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host?

A

Parasitism

179
Q

Interactions in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited or harmed is ?

A

Commensalism

180
Q

Coevolution is selection driven by interactions between ________. They are engaged in a reciprocal adaptive response.

A

-Species

181
Q

How is coevolution different than every other concept we have learned in class?

A

-It is about interactions between species, not populations of the same species

182
Q

In coevolution, each participant in the relationship undergoes natural selection. What is the highest fitness associated with?

A

genotypes that address the partnership

183
Q

How does coevolution happen?

A
  1. Mutualism
  2. Arms race (predator/prey)
  3. Co-Speciation (host/parasite)
184
Q

Mutualism is a form of ______ where both partners _______.

A
  • symbiosis

- benefit

185
Q

To be coevolution, the predator-prey relationship must be the ___________ selective force, and there must be _________ in the response.

A
  • primary

- reciprocity

186
Q

What is cospeciation?

A

-Host and parasite lineages diverge at the same time

187
Q

What is a gradual change in species composition over time?

A

Succession

188
Q

What is primary and secondary succession?

A
  • Primary: no soil exists

- Secondary: a community has been changed, but soil remains

189
Q

______ ______ recycle the atoms that make up every object in an ecosystem.

A

Nutrient cycles

190
Q

What is the trophic level of the food chain?

A

-Relative to the energy source

191
Q

Under ideal conditions, what kind of population growth occurs?

A

Exponential growth, where a population grows at a rate proportional to its size

192
Q

What two things limit population growth?

A
  1. Environmental resistance (limited resources)

2. Carrying capacity

193
Q

Population grows and then stops when it approaches the _______ _______ .

A

Carrying Capacity

194
Q

What kind of population growth accounts for environmental resistance?

A

Logistic Growth

Bio 1114 (7 decks)

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