Lab exam: 1 Flashcards
Name all the microscope pieces from left to right.
-ocular lenses
-Diopter adjustment
-Nose piece
-objective lenses
-Stage clip
-aperture
-diaphragm
-condenser
-light source
-Head
-arm
-mech. stage
-coarse adjustment
-fine adjustment
-stage controls
-base
-light/brightness adj
–light controls
How many parts of the microscope?
18
Objective magnification?
4x, 10x, 40x
What is high power magnification?
400x
Total magnification?
40x, 100x, 400x
Low power magnification?
40x. Not 4x.
Resolving power equation?
min. distance that can be resolved = wavelength of light/2
Diameter of F.O.V?
d of F.O.V =L.Pmag.x.dofL.P(um)
/Current mag.
Why does Green give better Resolution than Red?
Red light has higher wavelength than green light hence it doesn’t provide better resolution than green.
Why use methyl cellulose in lab 1 with pond water?
It slows down pond protoza for viewing. Methyl cellulose is convenient for mounting live embryos.
D.O.F
Depth of field: Range within an object can be seen clearly
When you increase the magnification, what decreases?
D.O.F
What are leucoplasts?
subcellular components of plant cells that store energy in form of starch
When looking at starches under a microscope, what shape can you see? (Hint: one of ur fav sports…)
rugby Ball-shaped structures=
Starch grains
What is Hilum?
Border around starch grains
What are Sclerieds?
Subcellular components of plant cells that provide protection & support to plant tissue
Where are sclerieds appearant? (Hint: A Fruit)
pears
What is a Macromolecule?
composed of mulitple smaller parts (monomers) linked together by bonds
How do you build a macromolecule?
By removing water (H2o)
equation for dehydration synthesis (D.S)
A-OH + B-H –> AB + H2O
How do you break apart marcomolecules?
By adding water to separate the monomers
What is the name for adding water to a macromolecule to break it apart (Hint: Opposit of D.S)
Hydrolysis
equation for hydrolysis?
AB +H2O –> A-OH + B-H
What do the cool people say for carbohydrates?
Hydrates of carbon
Chem. formula for Carbs?
Cn(H2O)n
Monosaccharides formula?
C6H12O6
Disaccharide formula?
C12H22O11 (We removed 1 water molecule to make the bond between the 2 monomers…This means we multiply the entire C6H12O6 formula by 2 and subtract 1 water molecule (H2O)
What are the bonds between disaccharides and polysaccharides?
Glycosidic bonds
Function of a polysaccharide?
store energy
What is the difference between alpha glucose and beta glucose?
alpha glucose has their OH towards the bottom, Beta OH is towards the sky.
What is starch composed of?
alpha glucose monomers connected through alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds…
What is Amylose and Amylopectin composed of?
Alpha glucose monomers
What bonds do starch (amylose and amylopectin) contain?
alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
Is Amylose branched?
No, that’s why it has alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds only
Is Amylopectin unbranched?
No, it is branched. It has alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds
2 types of starches are?
Amylose and amylopectin
What structure can alpha glucose molecules form when linked through alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds?
Helix
What reacts with the alpha glucose molecules when formed a helix?
Iodine sits in between the alpha glucose helix as dark blue.
what is the function of lipids?
long term storage as membranes and hormones
what is the polymer(s) of lipids?
none. no true polymers
are lipids hydrophobic or amphipathic?
they are both
What is the function of triglycerides?
Used for energy storage
What Form fats and oils?
triglycerides
what is a triglyceride composed of?
glycerole head and 3 fatty acid tails
what is the R-group of the triglycerides?
fatty acids because they can be saturated or unsaturated
What froms can proteins take? (Hint: 7)
enzymes, transporters, antibodies, structural proteins, receptors, contractile and motor proteins
What are amylases?
Enzymes
what does the enzyme, Amylase catalyze?
It catalyses the hydrolysis of the bonds holding starch together… the alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
The plants use starch to store what and in what form (2 types)?
sugar storage in the form of amylose and amylopectin
What does partial hydrolysis of starch form? (Hint: disaccharide and something you would never guess.)
maltose and dextrin
Where can you find amylases
?
saliva
why is amylase present in your saliva?
to help break down food as part of digestive process
Like all enzymes, what does the activity of the enzyme, amylase, rely on? (Hint: 4)
Temperature
pH
Enzyme concentration
Substrate (i.e saliva) concentration
Amylase can be called?
Protein enzyme and hydrolyzes alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
What was the point of lab 2: Biomolecules?
to determine how much of the enzyme, amylase, was present in our sample under various conditions.
What various conditions did we test in? (4)
0 degrees
23 degrees
37 degrees
100 degrees
Why did we have controls in this lab and what were they?
The controls were NaCl + 1 iodine drop and starch solution. We used the controls to compare the colors of each sample we tested under varioud conditions and time contraints. The controls were placed to show when the amylase was highly reactive (had hydrolyzed) and when it was completely deactivated (had no hydrolysis) .
Amylase + NaCl solution is what?
diluted saliva
what we tested in this lab?
was starch solutions and diluted saliva (amylase and NaCl solution)
What does the color dark blue or dark green mean?
it mean that a reaction happened between the iodine and the starch solution. A reaction took place because the iodine reacts well with unhydrolyzed starch.. meaning the amylase enzyme had not yet broken the alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds. Enzyme is inactive.
What does it mean when the color is yellow?
this means the enzyme is activated because the starch solution is hydrolyzed. Iodine does not react with hydrolyzed amylase. Remeber, iodine sits in the helic, if the helic breaks, it loses its color.
Results:
0 degrees?
The starch solution barely hydrolyzed because the enzyme was not in a suitable environment (low temp).
Results:
23 degrees?
some hydrolysis took place and reaction was faster because the temp was incfreased from the 0 degrees sample.
Results:
37 degrees?
Optimal temp for amylase to activate & hydrolyzed the fastest
Results:
100 degrees?
No hydrolysis took place since the enzyme completely deactivated due to denaturation
What is the purpose of lab 3: DNA & RNA?
explore the stability of DNA and RNA
what are nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA
what is DNA?
Double stranded molecule of deoxyribonucleotides
What is the function of DNA?
serve as long term storage of genetic info
What is RNA?
signle stranded molecule of ribonucleotides.
what is the function of RNA?
serve as short term storage of genetic info
What else does RNA help with?
protein synthesis through translation & act as a catalyst for certain cells.
what enzymes catalyze phosphodiester bonds?
DNAses & RNAses
What is another way of saying which is more stable out of RNA and DNA?
which is more resistant to degradation under simple conditions
Sample we are testing?
Bacterial Plasmid DNA containing non-specific RNA
We place these samples and test them under…
conditions that may lead to degradation.
What do we compare our experiment sampled bacterial Plasmid DNA to?
the controls which the DNA and RNA are not exposed to degradation.
Why do we use the gel electrophoresis?
To separate electrically charged molecules by size and shape
Which is negatively charged in the gel electrophoresis experiment?
the nucleic acids
why are the nucleic acids negatively charged?
because of the phosphate group
Where will the dna and rna migrate to?
the positive end (anode)
Nucleic acids sort by (…) through agarose gel matrix.
length
Which length/fragment migrates faster through agarose gek matrix?
shorter fragments
What happens when the electric field is activated for the gel electrophoresis? (Hint: think specifically about the fragmanets of DNA)
Fragments of different sizes separate into distinct bands stained by gel.
What does the buffer solution do for the gel electrophoresis?
maintains the pH of the nucleic acids tested.
Controls and experiment bands should look the same.. What happened if they don’t?
controls show the DNA fragments breakdown when not being degraded. When they don’t duplicate the controls, this means the samples have been degraded meaning their enzymes, DNAses and RNAses have sped up the reaction of breaking the phosphodiester bonds quicker than the control. This shows the stability difference in RNA and DNA by comparing it to the control that wasn’t degraded.
Because the shorter fragmnents travel faster through the gel, why do we call it RNA?
Because smaller fragments are degraded faster than the original control… meaning it is less stable than DNA
What is the morphology of a plant? (2)
- Must adapt to 2 different environements; Above and below ground.
- Evolutionary solutions to separation of resources… 3 basic plant organs
3 plant organs?
-roots
-stem
-leaves
what are the plant organs made up of? (2 types)
2 tissues;
-meristematic
-permanent
what type of tissue is meristematic?
actively dividing
what type of tissue is permanent?
ground, surface and vascular
what is meristematic and permanent tissues composed of?
Cells
are plant tissues and organs well adapted to their environments?
yes
what do we observe in lab 4: Plants?
we observe 3 types of plants adapted to specific conditions; temp, aquatic, dry/arid
how many leaf components did you study?
10
say the components of the leaf from top to bottom: starting with the cuticle.
Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Spongy Mesophyll
Air space
Vascular bundle; Xylem and Phloem
Guard cells
Stomata
Ground Tissue (Mesophyll)
Lower Epidermis
Surface tissues function?
Form protective outer layer of Plant body
Young plants have the…
epidermal cells layer
What are ground tissues?
It is the bulk of the plant organs (Roots, stems, leaves, flowers)
what are the 3 major ground tissues?
-Parenchyma cells
-Collenchyma cells
-Sclerechyma Cells
what does the Parenchyma cells do? (3)
photosynthesis, store nutrients, support shape when filled with water
what do the collenchyma cells do?
support of plant
what do the sclerenchyma cells do?
support of plant structure
What are vascular tissues? (2 types)
The Veins of the plant:
-Xylem
-Phloem
What does the Xylem do?
Transport water and dissolve substances
What does the Phloem do?
Transport organic material; carbs and proteins
What is the system we learnt about the plant?
Roots and Shoots system
what does the roots and shoots system start with?
Roots
what are the roots responsible for? (2)
-responsible for absorbing and conducting water and minerals.
-they also anchor the plant in place
what is the second component in the roots and shoots system?
stems
what do the stems do?
they act as a highway for the roots and leaves.
what do stems contain and why do they contain this specific tissue?
epidermal tissue to protect them from pathogens (disease causing agents)
Stems also contain another tissue.. which is it? (Hint: it helps stems serve as a highway)
Vascular tissue (veins) to conduct water up and down the plant
roots and stems are made of?
Meristematic tissue
The function of Leaves? (Hint: Very generic)
Photosynthesis
what is the formula for phtosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6O2
what does photosynthesis do for a plant?
stores and transports energy throughout plant and outside of the plant.
What is the energy used for in plants by photosynthesis?
growth
What is the cuticle?
a waxy layer secreted by epidermis cells
What does the cuticle do?
Protect plant from excessive evaporation of water
what is the stomata?
Allow gas exchange between plant atmosphere
How does the majority of water leave the plant?
Stomata lets it out by water vapour
What type of tissues is the roots and stems?
meristematic tissue
what type of tissue is the leaves?
permanent tissue
What does the xylem do?
transport water and dissolved substances
what does the phloem do?
transport organic materials; such as carbs and proteins
what are the 3 Variations of plants?
-mesophyte
-hydrophyte
-xerophyte
what is the function of a crypt?
provide a habitat for certain species. The water held within is an important source of hydration.
what is air space?
intercellular gaps within the spongy mesophyll filled with gas (CO2)
Guard cells function?
operates on gas entering and leaving the plant by diffusion the CO2.
how many components of the flower?
11
starting from the top, what is the first component of the flower? (Hint; think about the inside of the flower and the chicking wing shape)
stigma
style
ovary
(pistill/carpel female)
Pollen tube
Petals
Anthos
Filaments
(Stamen male part)
ovules (shit inside the chicken wing)
Sepals
Pedundle
stem
What is the study of histology?
tissues under a microscope
what is the smallest, simplest unit of organisation?
cells
what comes after cells?
tissues<organs<organ systems
how many tissues do you know?
17
what are the 4 main types of tissues?
-epithelium
-connective
-muscle
-nervous
what are the 6 epithilial tissues
(So, sarah….)
-Simple squamous
-Simple cuboidal
-Ssimple columnar
-Respiratory
-Stratified squamous
-Translation
The 7 connective tissues?
(Lily doesn’t..)
-Loose CT
-Dense irregular CT
-Dense regular CT
-Adipose
-Cartilage
-Bone
-Blood
3 Muscle tissues?
(Sexy…)
-Skeletal
-Cardiac
-Smooth
Nevrous tissue?
neurons
what is a tissue?
a group of cells working together to perform a specific function
Can Tissues group together? If so, what is the consequence?
Yes, they form functional units called organs
what does the digestive system do?
It allows us to ingest food, then physically breakdown in prep for chemical digestion or absorption
How does the digestive tract work?
nutrients enter lymphatic & circulatory system so they can be distributed where they are most needed.
What does the digestive tract do specifically to the food?
dehydrates and compacts the food into organic waste to be eliminated
How many organs of the digestive tract do you know?
14
name all organs from top to bottom of d-tract…
Parotid salivary glands
mouth
tongue
submandibular salivary gland
pharynx
esophagus
liver
stomach
pancreas
gallbladder
large intestine
small intestine
appendix
rectum
anal
organ function of pharynx?
passageway for solid foods, liquid and airmoving food into esophagus
esophagus function?
muscle lining esoph. helps move food to stomach
function of liver?
secretes bile into hepatic ducts and processes absorbed chemicals
gallbladder function?
stores and concentrates bile secreted by liver
Pancreas function?
secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
what moistens food bolus?
oral cavity
which tissue covers internal/external surfaces and is anchored to connective tissue?
epithelial tissues
which tissue connects and supports different parts of the body and provide strength?
connective tissues
which tissue contracts and stretch?
muscle tissue
what tissue communicates rapidly by nerve impulses and travel over neurons?
nervous tissue
what are the 3 alimentary canals?
mucosa
submucosa
muscularis
what is the mucosa composed of?
epithelium & loose areolar connective tissue
what is the function of the mucosa?
protects, secretes, absorbs
what is the submucosa composed of?
connective tissue
what is the function of the submucosa?
contain lymphatic vessels that service the mucosa
muscularis is composed of what?
inner circular muscle layerand outer longitudinal layer
what is the function of the muscularis?
moving things foward, mech. digestion
what is an example of keratinzed cells?
skin because cells are at thw surface and dead
what is an example of non keratinized cells?
in moist, living cells like vagina, mouth…
what do goblet cells secrete?
mucus
