L6: Individual differences: Personality Flashcards
1
Q
According to Gordon Allport, what is the concept of personality?
A
“a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings.”
2
Q
What are the key features of the concept of personality by Gordon Allport?
A
a. It is an active process that is structured.
b. Both the mind and body contribute to personality.
c. It involves relatively stable and typical traits.
d. It influences a wide range of activities.
3
Q
Name the major personality theories
A
a. Psychoanalytical approach
b. Learning theory
c. Trait approach
d. Biological and physiological approach
e. Cognitive approach
f. Humanistic approach
4
Q
What is the early perspective of the learning theory in personality?
A
- suggests that all of our behavior is learned and not directed by inner motives
- proposes that we respond to stimuli in our environment, and consequences determine our learning
5
Q
What are the two major forms of learning in the early perspective of the learning theory?
A
a. Classical conditioning - associated with Ivan P. Pavlov and John B. Watson.
b. Operant conditioning - associated with B. F. Skinner. It involves positive and negative reinforcement to shape behavior
6
Q
How does the later perspective of the learning theory differ from the early perspective?
A
- takes cognitive processes into account
- acknowledges the role of mental processes in learning and behaviour
- Walter Mischel is an example of a psychologist who contributed to this perspective
7
Q
What is the main idea behind the psychoanalytical approach to personality?
A
- psychoanalytical approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, suggests that most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives
8
Q
How does the psychoanalytical approach explain human behavior?
A
- psychoanalytical approach posits that human behaviour is influenced by a combination of genes and the environment
- It considers biological drives, such as sexual drive and life-preserving drives, as primary motivators.
- Additionally, the psychoanalytical approach includes concept of the death instinct.
- The competition between these drives determines an individual’s behaviour.
- Furthermore, experiences during development play a crucial role in shaping their personality
9
Q
What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)?
A
MBTI is a personality assessment tool based on Carl Jung’s typology theory
10
Q
What is the purpose of the MBTI?
A
- aims to identify an individual’s personality type using four dichotomies: Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling, and Judging vs. Perceiving
11
Q
How many different personality types are there in the MBTI?
A
combination of preferences in the four dichotomies results in 16 different personality types
12
Q
What insights does the MBTI provide about individuals?
A
provides insights into how individuals perceive the world, process information, and make decisions
13
Q
What are some common applications of the MBTI?
A
- commonly used for personal development, career counseling, and team-building
14
Q
What are some criticisms of the MBTI?
A
- has been criticized for its lack of scientific validity & oversimplification of complex human behaviour
15
Q
What is the Trait Approach to personality?
A
- suggests that personality factors are relatively stable over time and across situations
16
Q
Who is the psychologist known for applying factor analysis to personality traits in the Trait Approach?
A
Raymond Cattell (1905 – 1998)
17
Q
How many trait descriptions did Raymond Cattell start with in his factor analytic approach?
A
4500 trait descriptions
18
Q
Describe the method used by Raymond Cattell to reduce the trait descriptions in his factor analytic approach
A
- Stepwise reduction to 46, followed by factor analysis
19
Q
In the Trait Approach, what are the traits that cluster together on the surface level and the underlying traits called?
A
- Surface traits and source traits, respectively
20
Q
How many factors did Raymond Cattell identify in his factor analytic approach to represent the basic structures of personality?
A
16 factors
21
Q
What is the Five Factor Model, also known as the Big Five model, in personality psychology?
A
- a widely used model of personality that includes five major dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN)
22
Q
Who originally developed the Five Factor Model?
A
- The Five Factor Model was originally developed by several scientists
23
Q
What are the five major dimensions of the Five Factor Model?
A
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism.
24
Q
How is the Five Factor Model organized hierarchically?
A
- Five Factor Model is hierarchical, with each of the five super traits having six subordinate traits
25
What is the instrument commonly used to measure the Five Factor Model?
- often measured using the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R), developed by Costa and McCrae in 1985
26
What are the strengths of the Five Factor Model (Big Five model) in personality psychology?
- include its widespread acceptance and usage in the field of personality psychology
- provides a comprehensive framework for understanding personality traits and has been supported by a substantial body of research
27
What are the limitations of the Five Factor Model (Big Five model)?
- cultural bias, as some traits may not be universal across all cultures
- it may not capture the full complexity of individual personalities, and some argue that it oversimplifies the richness of human personality
28
How does the Five Factor Model compare to other personality theories, such as the psychoanalytic approach and the trait approach?
- Five factor more focused on trait-based descriptions of personality, whereas the psychoanalytic approach delves into unconscious motivations
- The trait approach emphasizes stability, while the Five Factor Model accounts for both stability and individual variability
29
What is the predictive validity of the Five Factor Model in relation to various life outcomes?
- has shown some predictive validity in various life outcomes, such as job performance, academic success, and overall life satisfaction
- however, its predictive power may vary depending on the specific context & criteria being measured
30
How does the Five Factor Model contribute to our understanding of individual differences?
- provides a valuable framework for studying individual differences in personality traits
- it allows researchers to explore variations in the Big Five dimensions within and across populations, leading to a deeper understanding of human personality diversity
31
Who developed the Biological and Physiological Approach to personality, and what are the key dimensions linked with arousal in this model?
- developed by Hans Juergen Eysenck
- the key dimensions linked with arousal in this model are extraversion and neuroticism
32
- Describe the traits associated with extraversion and neuroticism in Eysenck's biological model of personality
- extraversion: sociability, sensation-seeking, being carefree, and optimistic
- Neuroticism: anxiety, worry, and moodiness
33
What are the components of Eysenck's biological model of personality, and how do they manage arousal in response to stimuli?
- consists of the ARAS (Ascending Reticular Activating System) located in the brainstem, which has two parts: Reticulo-cortical and Reticulo-limbic
- Reticulo-cortical component manages arousal generated by incoming stimuli
- Reticulo-limbic component manages and controls arousal in response to emotional stimuli
34
What did Geen's (1984) research findings reveal about the relationship between extraversion and introversion and their performance in noise levels?
- Geen's (1984) research found that extroverts performed better at the noise level they chose compared to the noise level introverts listened to on average.
- Similarly, introverts performed better at the noise level they chose than at the noise level extroverts listened to on average
35
How does Eysenck's biological model contribute to our understanding of personality differences related to arousal?
- provides insight into how individual differences in arousal levels (as determined by extraversion and neuroticism) can impact various aspects of personality and behaviour
- highlights the role of biological factors in shaping personality traits & responses to environmental stimuli
36
What are some criticisms of the Biological and Physiological Approach to personality?
- oversimplification of personality to just two dimensions (extraversion and neuroticism),
- neglecting the influence of environmental and social factors on personality development
- deterministic view of personality as solely determined by biology
37
What are some strengths of the Biological and Physiological Approach to personality?
- its focus on the role of genetics & brain processes in shaping personality traits
- providing empirical evidence for links between arousal levels and personality
- offering valuable insights into individual differences in behaviour and emotional responses
38
How does the Biological and Physiological Approach contribute to our understanding of personality?
- provides a framework to explore the biological basis of personality (sheds light on how genetics & brain functions influence individual differences)
- it offers a foundation for research on the interplay between biology & behaviour, leading to a better understanding of human personality
39
What limitations are associated with the Biological and Physiological Approach?
- the reductionist perspective, which overlooks the complex and multifaceted nature of personality.
- model may not fully capture the wide range of personality traits and behaviours - as it primarily focuses on extraversion and neuroticism
40
How does the Biological and Physiological Approach relate to other personality theories?
- should be considered alongside other personality theories (such as the psychoanalytic, trait, cognitive, and humanistic approaches) to form comprehensive understanding of personality from different perspectives
- offers a more nuanced & comprehensive view of human behaviour/personality.
41
What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory?
- proposed by Jeffrey A. Gray
- an alternative to Eysenck's theory & suggests that personality is shaped by interactions between three systems:
1. Behavioural Approach System (BAS)
2. Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)
3. Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFS)
42
Describe the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) and its function
- seeks rewards
- associated with approach behaviour
- responsible for motivation towards goals and positive outcomes
43
What is the role of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) according to Gray's theory?
- associated with avoidance behaviour
- aims to prevent punishment. It is influenced by learned or conditioned motivations
44
What is the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFS) in Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory?
- the threat system that triggers natural responses to potential dangers or threats
45
How does Gray's BAS/BIS theory explain personality traits?
- proposes individual differences in personality traits (e.g. anxiety/impulsivity) are associated with the functioning of the BAS & BIS
- behavioural & neuroimaging studies have shown links between approach/avoidance behaviour and these personality traits in rodents and humans
46
What are testable concepts?
- constructs that can be measured and operationalized
- allowing researchers to empirically examine & investigate them in a scientific manner
47
What does it mean to operationalize a concept?
- providing clear & specific definition of the construct so that it can be measured in a research study
48
Why is operationalization important in research?
- it enables researchers to transform abstract constructs into measurable variables - making it possible to collect data and test hypotheses
49
How does operationalization enhance research validity?
- enhances research validity by ensuring that the variables being studied are clearly defined and measurable
- reducing ambiguity & potential bias in data collection.
50
Give an example of operationalizing a construct in psychology
- study on happiness
- researchers operationalize happiness as self-reported level of life satisfaction measured on a scale from 1 to 10 (higher scores indicate greater happiness)
51
What is the test-retest reliability of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)?
- between 60% and 90%
- indicating relatively stable results when the same individuals take the test on different occasions
52
What does internal reliability refer to in the context of the MBTI?
- indicates how well its items measure the same construct (personality dimensions)
- ranges between 0.60 and 0.87 depending on the dimension,
53
What is the main concern regarding the cross-cultural validity of the MBTI?
- questionable due to potential cultural differences that may impact the interpretation of personality traits
54
How does the MBTI perform in terms of predictive validity, especially for source traits?
- has limited predictive validity, particularly for source traits, making its predictions less powerful and speculative
55
What is the main strength of learning theory's concepts in terms of reliability?
- Learning theory's concepts are testable and have been extensively tested, contributing to their relatively reliable nature
56
What is the main weakness of learning theory's empirical validity?
- Some aspects of learning theory (especially those derived from animal studies) have shown limited empirical support in human research
57
How does learning theory account for internal motives in humans?
- may not fully account for the influence of internal motives on human behaviour
58
How was the reliability of Cattell's 16 Personality Factors improved over time?
- Early versions of Cattell's 16PF had low internal consistency, but revisions were made to enhance its reliability
59
What is a notable aspect of the validity of Cattell's 16PF in terms of predictability?
- has demonstrated good predictive validity, such as its ability to predict success in academic settings
60
What makes the Five Factor Model (Big Five) highly reliable in personality measurement?
- exhibits high reliability across languages, ages, and cultures, ensuring consistency in measuring personality traits
61
What provides strong empirical support for the Big Five model?
- the lexical approach and factor analysis offer strong empirical evidence in favour of the Big Five model
62
How does the NEO-PI-R contribute to the predictive validity of the Five Factor Model?
- NEO-PI-R (a measure based on the Five Factor Model) shows good predictive validity in various life outcomes and clinical settings
63
What is validity in research measurement?
extent to which a test or measure accurately assesses the concept it is intended to measure
64
What is face validity?
- assesses whether a measure appears to measure what it claims to measure at face value
- involves evaluating if the items in a test seem relevant to concept being assessed
65
What is content validity?
- assesses the extent to which a test covers all relevant aspects of the concept it is intended to measure
- ensures that items in the measure adequately represent the full range of the construct
66
What is predictive validity?
- assesses whether a test can accurately predict specific outcomes/behaviours
- examines the extent to which the scores on the measure are related to future performance/behaviour
67
What is reliability in research measurement?
- refers to the overall consistency & stability of a measurement
- indicating the extent to which a measure yields consistent results over multiple occasions
68
How is internal reliability assessed?
- assesses the consistency of a measurement within single test or assessment
- it examines the extent to which different items/questions that measure the same construct are positively correlated
69
What is test-retest reliability?
- assesses the consistency of a measurement over time
- involves administering the same measure to the same participants on two different occasions & determining the correlation between their scores
70
How is parallel forms reliability evaluated?
- assesses the consistency of a measurement between two different versions (forms) of a test that are intended to measure the same construct
- involves administering both forms to the same participants & calculating the correlation between their scores
71
What is Cronbach's alpha, and how is it used to measure reliability?
- a statistical value used to estimate the internal consistency of a scale or measure
- ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values meaning greater internal reliability
- calculated based on the inter-item correlations of the items within the measure
72
What is 'heritability'?
- estimate of extent that genetic variation accounting for individual differences in traits within a population
- measures how much variability in observable traits is due to genetic differences
- Statistical concept (h²)
* Estimates from 0 to 1 (0% to 100%)
* the higher the estimate the more
73
What is not 'heritability'?
- doesn't represent percentage of a trait that is determined by genetic factors within 1 individual
- doesn't indicate the exact proportion of a trait that is determined by genes
- doesn't consider gene-environmental interactions in shaping traits
74
How is heritability measured?
- assessed as the proportion of shared variance of a phenotype between biologically related individuals, such as parents, children, siblings, or twins
75
What are the two dimensions that determine phenotype in measuring heritability?
- two dimensions are genes and environment.
- together, they always contribute up to 100% of variance in a phenotype
76
How do twin studies help in understanding heritability?
- twin studies compare monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins to assess the influence of genetics on a trait
- the correlation between monozygotic twins (rMZ) provides insights into genetic influences and shared environmental influences.
77
What are shared and non-shared environments in twin studies?
- Shared environment refers to factors like having the same parents, attending the same school, and living in the same house
- Non-shared environment includes factors like different parenting styles, attending different schools, and having different hobbies
78
Shared environment refers to factors like having the same parents, attending the same school, and living in the same house. Non-shared environment includes factors like different parenting styles, attending different schools, and having different hobbies
- overestimate genetic heritability because identical twins have more similar environments than fraternal twins
- the correlation for monozygotic twins (rMZ) includes both genetic and shared environmental influences
79
How do adoption studies contribute to understanding heritability?
- Adoption studies compare the correlations between adopted children & their biological parents and adoptive parents to examine genetic and environmental influences on traits
80
Why might heritability estimates be larger in twin studies compared to adoption studies?
- estimates are usually larger in twin studies due to stronger shared environments in twin-adoption families and the potential influence of economic background on the phenotype
81
What is assortative mating and how does it relate to heritability estimates?
- is when people choose partners who are similar to them
- it can lead to underestimation of genetic contributions in heritability if genetically similar parents have genetically similar children
82
How do gene-environment correlations impact heritability estimates?
- gene-environment correlations involve passive, evocative, and active gene-environment interactions that can influence the expression of certain traits in specific environments, potentially leading to underestimation of genetic contributions in heritability
83
What is predictive validity of personality traits?
- refers to the ability of personality traits to predict behaviour, risk of illness, prevention strategies, intervention plans, and managing care and treatment plans
84
How does neuroticism relate to risk behavior and stress?
- associated with engagement in detrimental behaviours
- and predicts: lower heart rate stress reactivity, lower cortisol stress response, more decline of positive affect, higher psychological distress, and an increased risk of mental health issues
85
How are conscientiousness and agreeableness related to risk behaviour?
- Lower levels of conscientiousness and agreeableness are associated with engagement in detrimental behaviours e.g. smoking, drinking, and speeding
86
What are the effects of extraversion and openness on stress?
- higher extraversion is linked to smaller cortisol activation during stress and less increase of negative affect
- higher openness is associated with a lower cortisol stress response.
87
How is neuroticism linked to mental health?
- Neuroticism is a risk factor for various mental health issues, including Sz, depression, unipolar mood disorder, substance abuse, anxiety disorder& addictive disorders
88
Neuroticism is a risk factor for various mental health issues, including schizophrenia, depression, unipolar mood disorder, substance abuse, anxiety disorder, and addictive disorders
- Stronger trait avoidance tendencies predict both an increased risk of onset & a chronic course of anxiety disorders
89
How do extraversion and depression relate to mental health?
- Extraversion minimizes the risk of schizophrenia and depression and predicts life satisfaction and wellbeing
90
How does neuroticism affect physical health?
- Neuroticism increases the risk of cardiovascular disorders in depressed persons, predicts physical health problems
- also associated with greater chronic disease burden and the onset of chronic diseases
91
How does conscientiousness impact physical health?
Conscientiousness is associated with greater chronic disease burden
92
What are some possible mechanisms explaining the links between personality traits and illnesses?
There are four possible mechanisms:
1. Correlational link or overlapping biological causes: same biological processes (genes) might underpin both personality traits and illness outcomes
2. Causal link between personality traits and illness: Personality traits may play a role in causing certain illnesses
3. Indirect link via risky behaviour: personality traits can lead to engagement in risky behaviours that increase the risk of developing certain illnesses
4. Reversed causality: presence of an illness may lead to changes in personality traits
93
How do genes contribute to the interplay of personality traits and illnesses?
- may influence shared biological processes that lead to the co-occurrence of specific personality traits and illnesses
- genes can contribute to the development of certain personality traits that, in turn, may influence health outcomes
94
What is the nature vs. nurture debate?
- a long-standing discussion about the relative influences of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping human traits and characteristics, including personality
95
What does "nature" refer to in the nature vs. nurture debate?
- refers to the genetic or innate factors that contribute to an individual's traits, including their personality
- suggests that some aspects of personality are inherited through genes.
96
What does "nurture" refer to in the nature vs. nurture debate?
- refers to the environmental influences and experiences that impact an individual's development, including their personality
- emphasizes the role of external factors in shaping personality
97
How does the nature vs. nurture debate relate to personality?
- seeks to understand whether an individual's personality is predominantly determined by genetic factors (nature) or shaped by their life experiences and environment (nurture)
98
What does the "nature" perspective propose about personality?
- suggests that personality is largely influenced by genetic factors, meaning that certain traits and characteristics are inherited from one's parents and ancestors
99
What does the "nurture" perspective propose about personality?
- suggests that personality is primarily shaped by environmental factors, such as upbringing, cultural influences, social interactions, and life experiences
100
How do nature and nurture interact in shaping personality?
- interact in complex ways, where genetic predispositions can influence how individuals respond to and interact with their environment, and environmental experiences can, in turn, affect the expression of certain genetic traits.
101
What are some examples of genetic influences on personality (nature)?
- inherited temperament traits
- certain genetic markers associated with personality traits
- the heritability of certain personality dimensions based on twin and adoption studies
